210 lines
10 KiB
TeX
210 lines
10 KiB
TeX
\chapter{Execution model \label{execmodel}}
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\index{execution model}
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\section{Naming and binding \label{naming}}
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\indexii{code}{block}
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\index{namespace}
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\index{scope}
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\dfn{Names}\index{name} refer to objects. Names are introduced by
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name binding operations. Each occurrence of a name in the program
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text refers to the \dfn{binding}\indexii{binding}{name} of that name
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established in the innermost function block containing the use.
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A \dfn{block}\index{block} is a piece of Python program text that is
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executed as a unit. The following are blocks: a module, a function
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body, and a class definition. Each command typed interactively is a
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block. A script file (a file given as standard input to the
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interpreter or specified on the interpreter command line the first
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argument) is a code block. A script command (a command specified on
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the interpreter command line with the `\strong{-c}' option) is a code
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block. The file read by the built-in function \function{execfile()}
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is a code block. The string argument passed to the built-in function
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\function{eval()} and to the \keyword{exec} statement is a code block.
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The expression read and evaluated by the built-in function
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\function{input()} is a code block.
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A code block is executed in an \dfn{execution
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frame}\indexii{execution}{frame}. A frame contains some
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administrative information (used for debugging) and determines where
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and how execution continues after the code block's execution has
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completed.
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A \dfn{scope}\index{scope} defines the visibility of a name within a
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block. If a local variable is defined in a block, its scope includes
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that block. If the definition occurs in a function block, the scope
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extends to any blocks contained within the defining one, unless a
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contained block introduces a different binding for the name. The
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scope of names defined in a class block is limited to the class block;
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it does not extend to the code blocks of methods.
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When a name is used in a code block, it is resolved using the nearest
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enclosing scope. The set of all such scopes visible to a code block
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is called the block's \dfn{environment}\index{environment}.
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If a name is bound in a block, it is a local variable of that block.
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If a name is bound at the module level, it is a global variable. (The
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variables of the module code block are local and global.) If a
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variable is used in a code block but not defined there, it is a
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\dfn{free variable}\indexii{free}{variable}.
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When a name is not found at all, a
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\exception{NameError}\withsubitem{(built-in
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exception)}{\ttindex{NameError}} exception is raised. If the name
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refers to a local variable that has not been bound, a
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\exception{UnboundLocalError}\ttindex{UnboundLocalError} exception is
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raised. \exception{UnboundLocalError} is a subclass of
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\exception{NameError}.
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The following constructs bind names: formal parameters to functions,
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\keyword{import} statements, class and function definitions (these
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bind the class or function name in the defining block), and targets
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that are identifiers if occurring in an assignment, \keyword{for} loop
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header, or in the second position of an \keyword{except} clause
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header. The \keyword{import} statement of the form ``\samp{from
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\ldots import *}''\stindex{from} binds all names defined in the
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imported module, except those beginning with an underscore. This form
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may only be used at the module level.
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A target occurring in a \keyword{del} statement is also considered bound
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for this purpose (though the actual semantics are to unbind the
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name). It is illegal to unbind a name that is referenced by an
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enclosing scope; the compiler will report a \exception{SyntaxError}.
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Each assignment or import statement occurs within a block defined by a
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class or function definition or at the module level (the top-level
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code block).
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If a name binding operation occurs anywhere within a code block, all
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uses of the name within the block are treated as references to the
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current block. This can lead to errors when a name is used within a
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block before it is bound.
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This rule is subtle. Python lacks declarations and allows
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name binding operations to occur anywhere within a code block. The
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local variables of a code block can be determined by scanning the
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entire text of the block for name binding operations.
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If the global statement occurs within a block, all uses of the name
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specified in the statement refer to the binding of that name in the
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top-level namespace. Names are resolved in the top-level namespace by
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searching the global namespace, i.e. the namespace of the module
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containing the code block, and the builtin namespace, the namespace of
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the module \module{__builtin__}. The global namespace is searched
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first. If the name is not found there, the builtin namespace is
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searched. The global statement must precede all uses of the name.
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The built-in namespace associated with the execution of a code block
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is actually found by looking up the name \code{__builtins__} in its
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global namespace; this should be a dictionary or a module (in the
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latter case the module's dictionary is used). Normally, the
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\code{__builtins__} namespace is the dictionary of the built-in module
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\module{__builtin__} (note: no `s'). If it isn't, restricted
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execution\indexii{restricted}{execution} mode is in effect.
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The namespace for a module is automatically created the first time a
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module is imported. The main module for a script is always called
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\module{__main__}\refbimodindex{__main__}.
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The global statement has the same scope as a name binding operation
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in the same block. If the nearest enclosing scope for a free variable
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contains a global statement, the free variable is treated as a global.
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A class definition is an executable statement that may use and define
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names. These references follow the normal rules for name resolution.
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The namespace of the class definition becomes the attribute dictionary
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of the class. Names defined at the class scope are not visible in
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methods.
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\subsection{Interaction with dynamic features \label{dynamic-features}}
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There are several cases where Python statements are illegal when
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used in conjunction with nested scopes that contain free
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variables.
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If a variable is referenced in an enclosing scope, it is illegal
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to delete the name. An error will be reported at compile time.
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If the wild card form of import --- \samp{import *} --- is used in a
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function and the function contains or is a nested block with free
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variables, the compiler will raise a SyntaxError.
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If \keyword{exec} is used in a function and the function contains or
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is a nested block with free variables, the compiler will raise a
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\exception{SyntaxError} unless the exec explicitly specifies the local
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namespace for the \keyword{exec}. (In other words, \samp{exec obj}
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would be illegal, but \samp{exec obj in ns} would be legal.)
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The \function{eval()}, \function{execfile()}, and \function{input()}
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functions and the \keyword{exec} statement do not have access to the
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full environment for resolving names. Names may be resolved in the
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local and global namespaces of the caller. Free variables are not
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resolved in the nearest enclosing namespace, but in the global
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namespace.\footnote{This limitation occurs because the code that is
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executed by these operations is not available at the time the
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module is compiled.}
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The \keyword{exec} statement and the \function{eval()} and
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\function{execfile()} functions have optional arguments to override
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the global and local namespace. If only one namespace is specified,
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it is used for both.
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\section{Exceptions \label{exceptions}}
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\index{exception}
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Exceptions are a means of breaking out of the normal flow of control
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of a code block in order to handle errors or other exceptional
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conditions. An exception is
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\emph{raised}\index{raise an exception} at the point where the error
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is detected; it may be \emph{handled}\index{handle an exception} by
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the surrounding code block or by any code block that directly or
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indirectly invoked the code block where the error occurred.
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\index{exception handler}
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\index{errors}
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\index{error handling}
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The Python interpreter raises an exception when it detects a run-time
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error (such as division by zero). A Python program can also
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explicitly raise an exception with the \keyword{raise} statement.
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Exception handlers are specified with the \keyword{try} ... \keyword{except}
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statement. The \keyword{try} ... \keyword{finally} statement
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specifies cleanup code which does not handle the exception, but is
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executed whether an exception occurred or not in the preceding code.
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Python uses the ``termination''\index{termination model} model of
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error handling: an exception handler can find out what happened and
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continue execution at an outer level, but it cannot repair the cause
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of the error and retry the failing operation (except by re-entering
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the offending piece of code from the top).
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When an exception is not handled at all, the interpreter terminates
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execution of the program, or returns to its interactive main loop. In
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either case, it prints a stack backtrace, except when the exception is
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\exception{SystemExit}\withsubitem{(built-in
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exception)}{\ttindex{SystemExit}}.
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Exceptions are identified by class instances. The \keyword{except}
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clause is selected depending on the class of the instance: it must
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reference the class of the instance or a base class thereof. The
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instance can be received by the handler and can carry additional
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information about the exceptional condition.
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Exceptions can also be identified by strings, in which case the
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\keyword{except} clause is selected by object identity. An arbitrary
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value can be raised along with the identifying string which can be
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passed to the handler.
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\deprecated{2.5}{String exceptions should not be used in new code.
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They will not be supported in a future version of Python. Old code
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should be rewritten to use class exceptions instead.}
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\begin{notice}[warning]
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Messages to exceptions are not part of the Python API. Their contents may
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change from one version of Python to the next without warning and should not
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be relied on by code which will run under multiple versions of the
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interpreter.
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\end{notice}
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See also the description of the \keyword{try} statement in
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section~\ref{try} and \keyword{raise} statement in
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section~\ref{raise}.
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