352 lines
14 KiB
TeX
352 lines
14 KiB
TeX
\chapter{Python compiler package \label{compiler}}
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\sectionauthor{Jeremy Hylton}{jeremy@zope.com}
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The Python compiler package is a tool for analyzing Python source code
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and generating Python bytecode. The compiler contains libraries to
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generate an abstract syntax tree from Python source code and to
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generate Python bytecode from the tree.
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The \refmodule{compiler} package is a Python source to bytecode
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translator written in Python. It uses the built-in parser and
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standard \refmodule{parser} module to generated a concrete syntax
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tree. This tree is used to generate an abstract syntax tree (AST) and
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then Python bytecode.
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The full functionality of the package duplicates the builtin compiler
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provided with the Python interpreter. It is intended to match its
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behavior almost exactly. Why implement another compiler that does the
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same thing? The package is useful for a variety of purposes. It can
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be modified more easily than the builtin compiler. The AST it
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generates is useful for analyzing Python source code.
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This chapter explains how the various components of the
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\refmodule{compiler} package work. It blends reference material with
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a tutorial.
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The following modules are part of the \refmodule{compiler} package:
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\localmoduletable
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\section{The basic interface}
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\declaremodule{}{compiler}
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The top-level of the package defines four functions. If you import
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\module{compiler}, you will get these functions and a collection of
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modules contained in the package.
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\begin{funcdesc}{parse}{buf}
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Returns an abstract syntax tree for the Python source code in \var{buf}.
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The function raises SyntaxError if there is an error in the source
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code. The return value is a \class{compiler.ast.Module} instance that
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contains the tree.
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\end{funcdesc}
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\begin{funcdesc}{parseFile}{path}
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Return an abstract syntax tree for the Python source code in the file
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specified by \var{path}. It is equivalent to
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\code{parse(open(\var{path}).read())}.
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\end{funcdesc}
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\begin{funcdesc}{walk}{ast, visitor\optional{, verbose}}
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Do a pre-order walk over the abstract syntax tree \var{ast}. Call the
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appropriate method on the \var{visitor} instance for each node
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encountered.
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\end{funcdesc}
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\begin{funcdesc}{compile}{source, filename, mode, flags=None,
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dont_inherit=None}
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Compile the string \var{source}, a Python module, statement or
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expression, into a code object that can be executed by the exec
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statement or \function{eval()}. This function is a replacement for the
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built-in \function{compile()} function.
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The \var{filename} will be used for run-time error messages.
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The \var{mode} must be 'exec' to compile a module, 'single' to compile a
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single (interactive) statement, or 'eval' to compile an expression.
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The \var{flags} and \var{dont_inherit} arguments affect future-related
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statements, but are not supported yet.
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\end{funcdesc}
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\begin{funcdesc}{compileFile}{source}
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Compiles the file \var{source} and generates a .pyc file.
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\end{funcdesc}
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The \module{compiler} package contains the following modules:
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\refmodule[compiler.ast]{ast}, \module{consts}, \module{future},
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\module{misc}, \module{pyassem}, \module{pycodegen}, \module{symbols},
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\module{transformer}, and \refmodule[compiler.visitor]{visitor}.
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\section{Limitations}
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There are some problems with the error checking of the compiler
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package. The interpreter detects syntax errors in two distinct
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phases. One set of errors is detected by the interpreter's parser,
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the other set by the compiler. The compiler package relies on the
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interpreter's parser, so it get the first phases of error checking for
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free. It implements the second phase itself, and that implementation is
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incomplete. For example, the compiler package does not raise an error
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if a name appears more than once in an argument list:
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\code{def f(x, x): ...}
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A future version of the compiler should fix these problems.
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\section{Python Abstract Syntax}
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The \module{compiler.ast} module defines an abstract syntax for
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Python. In the abstract syntax tree, each node represents a syntactic
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construct. The root of the tree is \class{Module} object.
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The abstract syntax offers a higher level interface to parsed Python
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source code. The \ulink{\module{parser}}
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{http://www.python.org/doc/current/lib/module-parser.html}
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module and the compiler written in C for the Python interpreter use a
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concrete syntax tree. The concrete syntax is tied closely to the
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grammar description used for the Python parser. Instead of a single
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node for a construct, there are often several levels of nested nodes
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that are introduced by Python's precedence rules.
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The abstract syntax tree is created by the
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\module{compiler.transformer} module. The transformer relies on the
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builtin Python parser to generate a concrete syntax tree. It
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generates an abstract syntax tree from the concrete tree.
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The \module{transformer} module was created by Greg
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Stein\index{Stein, Greg} and Bill Tutt\index{Tutt, Bill} for an
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experimental Python-to-C compiler. The current version contains a
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number of modifications and improvements, but the basic form of the
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abstract syntax and of the transformer are due to Stein and Tutt.
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\subsection{AST Nodes}
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\declaremodule{}{compiler.ast}
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The \module{compiler.ast} module is generated from a text file that
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describes each node type and its elements. Each node type is
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represented as a class that inherits from the abstract base class
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\class{compiler.ast.Node} and defines a set of named attributes for
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child nodes.
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\begin{classdesc}{Node}{}
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The \class{Node} instances are created automatically by the parser
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generator. The recommended interface for specific \class{Node}
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instances is to use the public attributes to access child nodes. A
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public attribute may be bound to a single node or to a sequence of
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nodes, depending on the \class{Node} type. For example, the
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\member{bases} attribute of the \class{Class} node, is bound to a
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list of base class nodes, and the \member{doc} attribute is bound to
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a single node.
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Each \class{Node} instance has a \member{lineno} attribute which may
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be \code{None}. XXX Not sure what the rules are for which nodes
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will have a useful lineno.
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\end{classdesc}
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All \class{Node} objects offer the following methods:
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\begin{methoddesc}{getChildren}{}
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Returns a flattened list of the child nodes and objects in the
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order they occur. Specifically, the order of the nodes is the
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order in which they appear in the Python grammar. Not all of the
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children are \class{Node} instances. The names of functions and
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classes, for example, are plain strings.
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\end{methoddesc}
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\begin{methoddesc}{getChildNodes}{}
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Returns a flattened list of the child nodes in the order they
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occur. This method is like \method{getChildren()}, except that it
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only returns those children that are \class{Node} instances.
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\end{methoddesc}
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Two examples illustrate the general structure of \class{Node}
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classes. The \keyword{while} statement is defined by the following
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grammar production:
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\begin{verbatim}
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while_stmt: "while" expression ":" suite
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["else" ":" suite]
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\end{verbatim}
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The \class{While} node has three attributes: \member{test},
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\member{body}, and \member{else_}. (If the natural name for an
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attribute is also a Python reserved word, it can't be used as an
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attribute name. An underscore is appended to the word to make it a
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legal identifier, hence \member{else_} instead of \keyword{else}.)
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The \keyword{if} statement is more complicated because it can include
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several tests.
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\begin{verbatim}
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if_stmt: 'if' test ':' suite ('elif' test ':' suite)* ['else' ':' suite]
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\end{verbatim}
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The \class{If} node only defines two attributes: \member{tests} and
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\member{else_}. The \member{tests} attribute is a sequence of test
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expression, consequent body pairs. There is one pair for each
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\keyword{if}/\keyword{elif} clause. The first element of the pair is
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the test expression. The second elements is a \class{Stmt} node that
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contains the code to execute if the test is true.
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The \method{getChildren()} method of \class{If} returns a flat list of
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child nodes. If there are three \keyword{if}/\keyword{elif} clauses
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and no \keyword{else} clause, then \method{getChildren()} will return
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a list of six elements: the first test expression, the first
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\class{Stmt}, the second text expression, etc.
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The following table lists each of the \class{Node} subclasses defined
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in \module{compiler.ast} and each of the public attributes available
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on their instances. The values of most of the attributes are
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themselves \class{Node} instances or sequences of instances. When the
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value is something other than an instance, the type is noted in the
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comment. The attributes are listed in the order in which they are
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returned by \method{getChildren()} and \method{getChildNodes()}.
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\input{asttable}
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\subsection{Assignment nodes}
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There is a collection of nodes used to represent assignments. Each
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assignment statement in the source code becomes a single
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\class{Assign} node in the AST. The \member{nodes} attribute is a
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list that contains a node for each assignment target. This is
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necessary because assignment can be chained, e.g. \code{a = b = 2}.
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Each \class{Node} in the list will be one of the following classes:
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\class{AssAttr}, \class{AssList}, \class{AssName}, or
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\class{AssTuple}.
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Each target assignment node will describe the kind of object being
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assigned to: \class{AssName} for a simple name, e.g. \code{a = 1}.
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\class{AssAttr} for an attribute assigned, e.g. \code{a.x = 1}.
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\class{AssList} and \class{AssTuple} for list and tuple expansion
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respectively, e.g. \code{a, b, c = a_tuple}.
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The target assignment nodes also have a \member{flags} attribute that
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indicates whether the node is being used for assignment or in a delete
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statement. The \class{AssName} is also used to represent a delete
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statement, e.g. \class{del x}.
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When an expression contains several attribute references, an
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assignment or delete statement will contain only one \class{AssAttr}
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node -- for the final attribute reference. The other attribute
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references will be represented as \class{Getattr} nodes in the
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\member{expr} attribute of the \class{AssAttr} instance.
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\subsection{Examples}
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This section shows several simple examples of ASTs for Python source
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code. The examples demonstrate how to use the \function{parse()}
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function, what the repr of an AST looks like, and how to access
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attributes of an AST node.
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The first module defines a single function. Assume it is stored in
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\file{/tmp/doublelib.py}.
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\begin{verbatim}
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"""This is an example module.
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This is the docstring.
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"""
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def double(x):
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"Return twice the argument"
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return x * 2
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\end{verbatim}
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In the interactive interpreter session below, I have reformatted the
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long AST reprs for readability. The AST reprs use unqualified class
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names. If you want to create an instance from a repr, you must import
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the class names from the \module{compiler.ast} module.
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\begin{verbatim}
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>>> import compiler
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>>> mod = compiler.parseFile("/tmp/doublelib.py")
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>>> mod
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Module('This is an example module.\n\nThis is the docstring.\n',
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Stmt([Function('double', ['x'], [], 0, 'Return twice the argument',
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Stmt([Return(Mul((Name('x'), Const(2))))]))]))
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>>> from compiler.ast import *
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>>> Module('This is an example module.\n\nThis is the docstring.\n',
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... Stmt([Function('double', ['x'], [], 0, 'Return twice the argument',
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... Stmt([Return(Mul((Name('x'), Const(2))))]))]))
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Module('This is an example module.\n\nThis is the docstring.\n',
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Stmt([Function('double', ['x'], [], 0, 'Return twice the argument',
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Stmt([Return(Mul((Name('x'), Const(2))))]))]))
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>>> mod.doc
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'This is an example module.\n\nThis is the docstring.\n'
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>>> for node in mod.node.nodes:
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... print node
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...
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Function('double', ['x'], [], 0, 'Return twice the argument',
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Stmt([Return(Mul((Name('x'), Const(2))))]))
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>>> func = mod.node.nodes[0]
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>>> func.code
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Stmt([Return(Mul((Name('x'), Const(2))))])
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\end{verbatim}
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\section{Using Visitors to Walk ASTs}
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\declaremodule{}{compiler.visitor}
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The visitor pattern is ... The \refmodule{compiler} package uses a
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variant on the visitor pattern that takes advantage of Python's
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introspection features to elminiate the need for much of the visitor's
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infrastructure.
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The classes being visited do not need to be programmed to accept
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visitors. The visitor need only define visit methods for classes it
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is specifically interested in; a default visit method can handle the
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rest.
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XXX The magic \method{visit()} method for visitors.
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\begin{funcdesc}{walk}{tree, visitor\optional{, verbose}}
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\end{funcdesc}
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\begin{classdesc}{ASTVisitor}{}
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The \class{ASTVisitor} is responsible for walking over the tree in the
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correct order. A walk begins with a call to \method{preorder()}. For
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each node, it checks the \var{visitor} argument to \method{preorder()}
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for a method named `visitNodeType,' where NodeType is the name of the
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node's class, e.g. for a \class{While} node a \method{visitWhile()}
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would be called. If the method exists, it is called with the node as
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its first argument.
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The visitor method for a particular node type can control how child
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nodes are visited during the walk. The \class{ASTVisitor} modifies
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the visitor argument by adding a visit method to the visitor; this
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method can be used to visit a particular child node. If no visitor is
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found for a particular node type, the \method{default()} method is
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called.
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\end{classdesc}
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\class{ASTVisitor} objects have the following methods:
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XXX describe extra arguments
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\begin{methoddesc}{default}{node\optional{, \moreargs}}
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\end{methoddesc}
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\begin{methoddesc}{dispatch}{node\optional{, \moreargs}}
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\end{methoddesc}
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\begin{methoddesc}{preorder}{tree, visitor}
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\end{methoddesc}
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\section{Bytecode Generation}
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The code generator is a visitor that emits bytecodes. Each visit method
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can call the \method{emit()} method to emit a new bytecode. The basic
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code generator is specialized for modules, classes, and functions. An
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assembler converts that emitted instructions to the low-level bytecode
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format. It handles things like generator of constant lists of code
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objects and calculation of jump offsets.
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