cpython/Doc/library/io.rst

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:mod:`io` --- Core tools for working with streams
=================================================
.. module:: io
:synopsis: Core tools for working with streams.
.. moduleauthor:: Guido van Rossum <guido@python.org>
.. moduleauthor:: Mike Verdone <mike.verdone@gmail.com>
.. moduleauthor:: Mark Russell <mark.russell@zen.co.uk>
.. moduleauthor:: Antoine Pitrou <solipsis@pitrou.net>
.. moduleauthor:: Amaury Forgeot d'Arc <amauryfa@gmail.com>
.. moduleauthor:: Benjamin Peterson <benjamin@python.org>
.. sectionauthor:: Benjamin Peterson <benjamin@python.org>
.. _io-overview:
Overview
--------
The :mod:`io` module provides Python's main facilities for dealing for various
types of I/O. There are three main types of I/O: *text I/O*, *binary I/O*, *raw
I/O*. These are generic categories, and various backing stores can be used for
each of them. Concrete objects belonging to any of these categories will often
be called *streams*; another common term is *file-like objects*.
Independently of its category, each concrete stream object will also have
various capabilities: it can be read-only, write-only, or read-write. It can
also allow arbitrary random access (seeking forwards or backwards to any
location), or only sequential access (for example in the case of a socket or
pipe).
All streams are careful about the type of data you give to them. For example
giving a :class:`str` object to the ``write()`` method of a binary stream
will raise a ``TypeError``. So will giving a :class:`bytes` object to the
``write()`` method of a text stream.
Text I/O
^^^^^^^^
Text I/O expects and produces :class:`str` objects. This means that whenever
the backing store is natively made of bytes (such as in the case of a file),
encoding and decoding of data is made transparently as well as optional
translation of platform-specific newline characters.
The easiest way to create a text stream is with :meth:`open()`, optionally
specifying an encoding::
f = open("myfile.txt", "r", encoding="utf-8")
In-memory text streams are also available as :class:`StringIO` objects::
f = io.StringIO("some initial text data")
The text stream API is described in detail in the documentation for the
:class:`TextIOBase`.
.. note::
Text I/O over a binary storage (such as a file) is significantly slower than
binary I/O over the same storage. This can become noticeable if you handle
huge amounts of text data (for example very large log files).
Binary I/O
^^^^^^^^^^
Binary I/O (also called *buffered I/O*) expects and produces :class:`bytes`
objects. No encoding, decoding, or newline translation is performed. This
category of streams can be used for all kinds of non-text data, and also when
manual control over the handling of text data is desired.
The easiest way to create a binary stream is with :meth:`open()` with ``'b'`` in
the mode string::
f = open("myfile.jpg", "rb")
In-memory binary streams are also available as :class:`BytesIO` objects::
f = io.BytesIO(b"some initial binary data: \x00\x01")
The binary stream API is described in detail in the docs of
:class:`BufferedIOBase`.
Other library modules may provide additional ways to create text or binary
streams. See :meth:`socket.socket.makefile` for example.
Raw I/O
^^^^^^^
Raw I/O (also called *unbuffered I/O*) is generally used as a low-level
building-block for binary and text streams; it is rarely useful to directly
manipulate a raw stream from user code. Nevertheless, you can create a raw
stream by opening a file in binary mode with buffering disabled::
f = open("myfile.jpg", "rb", buffering=0)
The raw stream API is described in detail in the docs of :class:`RawIOBase`.
High-level Module Interface
---------------------------
.. data:: DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE
An int containing the default buffer size used by the module's buffered I/O
classes. :func:`open` uses the file's blksize (as obtained by
:func:`os.stat`) if possible.
.. function:: open(file, mode='r', buffering=-1, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None, closefd=True)
This is an alias for the builtin :func:`open` function.
.. exception:: BlockingIOError
Error raised when blocking would occur on a non-blocking stream. It inherits
:exc:`IOError`.
In addition to those of :exc:`IOError`, :exc:`BlockingIOError` has one
attribute:
.. attribute:: characters_written
An integer containing the number of characters written to the stream
before it blocked.
.. exception:: UnsupportedOperation
An exception inheriting :exc:`IOError` and :exc:`ValueError` that is raised
when an unsupported operation is called on a stream.
In-memory streams
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
It is also possible to use a :class:`str` or :class:`bytes`-like object as a
file for both reading and writing. For strings :class:`StringIO` can be used
like a file opened in text mode. :class:`BytesIO` can be used like a file
opened in binary mode. Both provide full read-write capabilities with random
access.
.. seealso::
:mod:`sys`
contains the standard IO streams: :data:`sys.stdin`, :data:`sys.stdout`,
and :data:`sys.stderr`.
Class hierarchy
---------------
The implementation of I/O streams is organized as a hierarchy of classes. First
:term:`abstract base classes <abstract base class>` (ABCs), which are used to
specify the various categories of streams, then concrete classes providing the
standard stream implementations.
.. note::
The abstract base classes also provide default implementations of some
methods in order to help implementation of concrete stream classes. For
example, :class:`BufferedIOBase` provides unoptimized implementations of
``readinto()`` and ``readline()``.
At the top of the I/O hierarchy is the abstract base class :class:`IOBase`. It
defines the basic interface to a stream. Note, however, that there is no
separation between reading and writing to streams; implementations are allowed
to raise :exc:`UnsupportedOperation` if they do not support a given operation.
The :class:`RawIOBase` ABC extends :class:`IOBase`. It deals with the reading
and writing of bytes to a stream. :class:`FileIO` subclasses :class:`RawIOBase`
to provide an interface to files in the machine's file system.
The :class:`BufferedIOBase` ABC deals with buffering on a raw byte stream
(:class:`RawIOBase`). Its subclasses, :class:`BufferedWriter`,
:class:`BufferedReader`, and :class:`BufferedRWPair` buffer streams that are
readable, writable, and both readable and writable. :class:`BufferedRandom`
provides a buffered interface to random access streams. Another
:class`BufferedIOBase` subclass, :class:`BytesIO`, is a stream of in-memory
bytes.
The :class:`TextIOBase` ABC, another subclass of :class:`IOBase`, deals with
streams whose bytes represent text, and handles encoding and decoding to and
from strings. :class:`TextIOWrapper`, which extends it, is a buffered text
interface to a buffered raw stream (:class:`BufferedIOBase`). Finally,
:class:`StringIO` is an in-memory stream for text.
Argument names are not part of the specification, and only the arguments of
:func:`open` are intended to be used as keyword arguments.
I/O Base Classes
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
.. class:: IOBase
The abstract base class for all I/O classes, acting on streams of bytes.
There is no public constructor.
This class provides empty abstract implementations for many methods
that derived classes can override selectively; the default
implementations represent a file that cannot be read, written or
seeked.
Even though :class:`IOBase` does not declare :meth:`read`, :meth:`readinto`,
or :meth:`write` because their signatures will vary, implementations and
clients should consider those methods part of the interface. Also,
implementations may raise a :exc:`IOError` when operations they do not
support are called.
The basic type used for binary data read from or written to a file is
:class:`bytes`. :class:`bytearray`\s are accepted too, and in some cases
(such as :class:`readinto`) required. Text I/O classes work with
:class:`str` data.
Note that calling any method (even inquiries) on a closed stream is
undefined. Implementations may raise :exc:`IOError` in this case.
IOBase (and its subclasses) support the iterator protocol, meaning that an
:class:`IOBase` object can be iterated over yielding the lines in a stream.
Lines are defined slightly differently depending on whether the stream is
a binary stream (yielding bytes), or a text stream (yielding character
strings). See :meth:`readline` below.
IOBase is also a context manager and therefore supports the
:keyword:`with` statement. In this example, *file* is closed after the
:keyword:`with` statement's suite is finished---even if an exception occurs::
with open('spam.txt', 'w') as file:
file.write('Spam and eggs!')
:class:`IOBase` provides these data attributes and methods:
.. method:: close()
Flush and close this stream. This method has no effect if the file is
already closed. Once the file is closed, any operation on the file
(e.g. reading or writing) will raise a :exc:`ValueError`.
As a convenience, it is allowed to call this method more than once;
only the first call, however, will have an effect.
.. attribute:: closed
True if the stream is closed.
.. method:: fileno()
Return the underlying file descriptor (an integer) of the stream if it
exists. An :exc:`IOError` is raised if the IO object does not use a file
descriptor.
.. method:: flush()
Flush the write buffers of the stream if applicable. This does nothing
for read-only and non-blocking streams.
.. method:: isatty()
Return ``True`` if the stream is interactive (i.e., connected to
a terminal/tty device).
.. method:: readable()
Return ``True`` if the stream can be read from. If False, :meth:`read`
will raise :exc:`IOError`.
.. method:: readline(limit=-1)
Read and return one line from the stream. If *limit* is specified, at
most *limit* bytes will be read.
The line terminator is always ``b'\n'`` for binary files; for text files,
the *newlines* argument to :func:`open` can be used to select the line
terminator(s) recognized.
.. method:: readlines(hint=-1)
Read and return a list of lines from the stream. *hint* can be specified
to control the number of lines read: no more lines will be read if the
total size (in bytes/characters) of all lines so far exceeds *hint*.
.. method:: seek(offset, whence=SEEK_SET)
Change the stream position to the given byte *offset*. *offset* is
interpreted relative to the position indicated by *whence*. Values for
*whence* are:
* :data:`SEEK_SET` or ``0`` -- start of the stream (the default);
*offset* should be zero or positive
* :data:`SEEK_CUR` or ``1`` -- current stream position; *offset* may
be negative
* :data:`SEEK_END` or ``2`` -- end of the stream; *offset* is usually
negative
Return the new absolute position.
.. versionadded:: 3.1
The ``SEEK_*`` constants.
.. method:: seekable()
Return ``True`` if the stream supports random access. If ``False``,
:meth:`seek`, :meth:`tell` and :meth:`truncate` will raise :exc:`IOError`.
.. method:: tell()
Return the current stream position.
.. method:: truncate(size=None)
Resize the stream to the given *size* in bytes (or the current position
if *size* is not specified). The current stream position isn't changed.
This resizing can extend or reduce the current file size. In case of
extension, the contents of the new file area depend on the platform
(on most systems, additional bytes are zero-filled, on Windows they're
undetermined). The new file size is returned.
.. method:: writable()
Return ``True`` if the stream supports writing. If ``False``,
:meth:`write` and :meth:`truncate` will raise :exc:`IOError`.
.. method:: writelines(lines)
Write a list of lines to the stream. Line separators are not added, so it
is usual for each of the lines provided to have a line separator at the
end.
.. class:: RawIOBase
Base class for raw binary I/O. It inherits :class:`IOBase`. There is no
public constructor.
Raw binary I/O typically provides low-level access to an underlying OS
device or API, and does not try to encapsulate it in high-level primitives
(this is left to Buffered I/O and Text I/O, described later in this page).
In addition to the attributes and methods from :class:`IOBase`,
RawIOBase provides the following methods:
.. method:: read(n=-1)
Read up to *n* bytes from the object and return them. As a convenience,
if *n* is unspecified or -1, :meth:`readall` is called. Otherwise,
only one system call is ever made. Fewer than *n* bytes may be
returned if the operating system call returns fewer than *n* bytes.
If 0 bytes are returned, and *n* was not 0, this indicates end of file.
If the object is in non-blocking mode and no bytes are available,
``None`` is returned.
.. method:: readall()
Read and return all the bytes from the stream until EOF, using multiple
calls to the stream if necessary.
.. method:: readinto(b)
Read up to len(b) bytes into bytearray *b* and return the number of bytes
read.
.. method:: write(b)
Write the given bytes or bytearray object, *b*, to the underlying raw
stream and return the number of bytes written. This can be less than
``len(b)``, depending on specifics of the underlying raw stream, and
especially if it is in non-blocking mode. ``None`` is returned if the
raw stream is set not to block and no single byte could be readily
written to it.
.. class:: BufferedIOBase
Base class for binary streams that support some kind of buffering.
It inherits :class:`IOBase`. There is no public constructor.
The main difference with :class:`RawIOBase` is that methods :meth:`read`,
:meth:`readinto` and :meth:`write` will try (respectively) to read as much
input as requested or to consume all given output, at the expense of
making perhaps more than one system call.
In addition, those methods can raise :exc:`BlockingIOError` if the
underlying raw stream is in non-blocking mode and cannot take or give
enough data; unlike their :class:`RawIOBase` counterparts, they will
never return ``None``.
Besides, the :meth:`read` method does not have a default
implementation that defers to :meth:`readinto`.
A typical :class:`BufferedIOBase` implementation should not inherit from a
:class:`RawIOBase` implementation, but wrap one, like
:class:`BufferedWriter` and :class:`BufferedReader` do.
:class:`BufferedIOBase` provides or overrides these members in addition to
those from :class:`IOBase`:
.. attribute:: raw
The underlying raw stream (a :class:`RawIOBase` instance) that
:class:`BufferedIOBase` deals with. This is not part of the
:class:`BufferedIOBase` API and may not exist on some implementations.
.. method:: detach()
Separate the underlying raw stream from the buffer and return it.
After the raw stream has been detached, the buffer is in an unusable
state.
Some buffers, like :class:`BytesIO`, do not have the concept of a single
raw stream to return from this method. They raise
:exc:`UnsupportedOperation`.
.. versionadded:: 3.1
.. method:: read(n=-1)
Read and return up to *n* bytes. If the argument is omitted, ``None``, or
negative, data is read and returned until EOF is reached. An empty bytes
object is returned if the stream is already at EOF.
If the argument is positive, and the underlying raw stream is not
interactive, multiple raw reads may be issued to satisfy the byte count
(unless EOF is reached first). But for interactive raw streams, at most
one raw read will be issued, and a short result does not imply that EOF is
imminent.
A :exc:`BlockingIOError` is raised if the underlying raw stream is in
non blocking-mode, and has no data available at the moment.
.. method:: read1(n=-1)
Read and return up to *n* bytes, with at most one call to the underlying
raw stream's :meth:`~RawIOBase.read` method. This can be useful if you
are implementing your own buffering on top of a :class:`BufferedIOBase`
object.
.. method:: readinto(b)
Read up to len(b) bytes into bytearray *b* and return the number of bytes
read.
Like :meth:`read`, multiple reads may be issued to the underlying raw
stream, unless the latter is 'interactive'.
A :exc:`BlockingIOError` is raised if the underlying raw stream is in
non blocking-mode, and has no data available at the moment.
.. method:: write(b)
Write the given bytes or bytearray object, *b* and return the number
of bytes written (never less than ``len(b)``, since if the write fails
an :exc:`IOError` will be raised). Depending on the actual
implementation, these bytes may be readily written to the underlying
stream, or held in a buffer for performance and latency reasons.
When in non-blocking mode, a :exc:`BlockingIOError` is raised if the
data needed to be written to the raw stream but it couldn't accept
all the data without blocking.
Raw File I/O
^^^^^^^^^^^^
.. class:: FileIO(name, mode='r', closefd=True)
:class:`FileIO` represents an OS-level file containing bytes data.
It implements the :class:`RawIOBase` interface (and therefore the
:class:`IOBase` interface, too).
The *name* can be one of two things:
* a character string or bytes object representing the path to the file
which will be opened;
* an integer representing the number of an existing OS-level file descriptor
to which the resulting :class:`FileIO` object will give access.
The *mode* can be ``'r'``, ``'w'`` or ``'a'`` for reading (default), writing,
or appending. The file will be created if it doesn't exist when opened for
writing or appending; it will be truncated when opened for writing. Add a
``'+'`` to the mode to allow simultaneous reading and writing.
The :meth:`read` (when called with a positive argument), :meth:`readinto`
and :meth:`write` methods on this class will only make one system call.
In addition to the attributes and methods from :class:`IOBase` and
:class:`RawIOBase`, :class:`FileIO` provides the following data
attributes and methods:
.. attribute:: mode
The mode as given in the constructor.
.. attribute:: name
The file name. This is the file descriptor of the file when no name is
given in the constructor.
Buffered Streams
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
In many situations, buffered I/O streams will provide higher performance
(bandwidth and latency) than raw I/O streams. Their API is also more usable.
.. class:: BytesIO([initial_bytes])
A stream implementation using an in-memory bytes buffer. It inherits
:class:`BufferedIOBase`.
The argument *initial_bytes* contains optional initial :class:`bytes` data.
:class:`BytesIO` provides or overrides these methods in addition to those
from :class:`BufferedIOBase` and :class:`IOBase`:
.. method:: getbuffer()
Return a readable and writable view over the contents of the buffer
without copying them. Also, mutating the view will transparently
update the contents of the buffer::
>>> b = io.BytesIO(b"abcdef")
>>> view = b.getbuffer()
>>> view[2:4] = b"56"
>>> b.getvalue()
b'ab56ef'
.. note::
As long as the view exists, the :class:`BytesIO` object cannot be
resized.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
.. method:: getvalue()
Return ``bytes`` containing the entire contents of the buffer.
.. method:: read1()
In :class:`BytesIO`, this is the same as :meth:`read`.
.. class:: BufferedReader(raw, buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE)
A buffer providing higher-level access to a readable, sequential
:class:`RawIOBase` object. It inherits :class:`BufferedIOBase`.
When reading data from this object, a larger amount of data may be
requested from the underlying raw stream, and kept in an internal buffer.
The buffered data can then be returned directly on subsequent reads.
The constructor creates a :class:`BufferedReader` for the given readable
*raw* stream and *buffer_size*. If *buffer_size* is omitted,
:data:`DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE` is used.
:class:`BufferedReader` provides or overrides these methods in addition to
those from :class:`BufferedIOBase` and :class:`IOBase`:
.. method:: peek([n])
Return bytes from the stream without advancing the position. At most one
single read on the raw stream is done to satisfy the call. The number of
bytes returned may be less or more than requested.
.. method:: read([n])
Read and return *n* bytes, or if *n* is not given or negative, until EOF
or if the read call would block in non-blocking mode.
.. method:: read1(n)
Read and return up to *n* bytes with only one call on the raw stream. If
at least one byte is buffered, only buffered bytes are returned.
Otherwise, one raw stream read call is made.
.. class:: BufferedWriter(raw, buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE)
A buffer providing higher-level access to a writeable, sequential
:class:`RawIOBase` object. It inherits :class:`BufferedIOBase`.
When writing to this object, data is normally held into an internal
buffer. The buffer will be written out to the underlying :class:`RawIOBase`
object under various conditions, including:
* when the buffer gets too small for all pending data;
* when :meth:`flush()` is called;
* when a :meth:`seek()` is requested (for :class:`BufferedRandom` objects);
* when the :class:`BufferedWriter` object is closed or destroyed.
The constructor creates a :class:`BufferedWriter` for the given writeable
*raw* stream. If the *buffer_size* is not given, it defaults to
:data:`DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE`.
A third argument, *max_buffer_size*, is supported, but unused and deprecated.
:class:`BufferedWriter` provides or overrides these methods in addition to
those from :class:`BufferedIOBase` and :class:`IOBase`:
.. method:: flush()
Force bytes held in the buffer into the raw stream. A
:exc:`BlockingIOError` should be raised if the raw stream blocks.
.. method:: write(b)
Write the bytes or bytearray object, *b* and return the number of bytes
written. When in non-blocking mode, a :exc:`BlockingIOError` is raised
if the buffer needs to be written out but the raw stream blocks.
.. class:: BufferedRWPair(reader, writer, buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE)
A buffered I/O object giving a combined, higher-level access to two
sequential :class:`RawIOBase` objects: one readable, the other writeable.
It is useful for pairs of unidirectional communication channels
(pipes, for instance). It inherits :class:`BufferedIOBase`.
*reader* and *writer* are :class:`RawIOBase` objects that are readable and
writeable respectively. If the *buffer_size* is omitted it defaults to
:data:`DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE`.
A fourth argument, *max_buffer_size*, is supported, but unused and
deprecated.
:class:`BufferedRWPair` implements all of :class:`BufferedIOBase`\'s methods
except for :meth:`~BufferedIOBase.detach`, which raises
:exc:`UnsupportedOperation`.
.. class:: BufferedRandom(raw, buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE)
A buffered interface to random access streams. It inherits
:class:`BufferedReader` and :class:`BufferedWriter`, and further supports
:meth:`seek` and :meth:`tell` functionality.
The constructor creates a reader and writer for a seekable raw stream, given
in the first argument. If the *buffer_size* is omitted it defaults to
:data:`DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE`.
A third argument, *max_buffer_size*, is supported, but unused and deprecated.
:class:`BufferedRandom` is capable of anything :class:`BufferedReader` or
:class:`BufferedWriter` can do.
Text I/O
^^^^^^^^
.. class:: TextIOBase
Base class for text streams. This class provides a character and line based
interface to stream I/O. There is no :meth:`readinto` method because
Python's character strings are immutable. It inherits :class:`IOBase`.
There is no public constructor.
:class:`TextIOBase` provides or overrides these data attributes and
methods in addition to those from :class:`IOBase`:
.. attribute:: encoding
The name of the encoding used to decode the stream's bytes into
strings, and to encode strings into bytes.
.. attribute:: errors
The error setting of the decoder or encoder.
.. attribute:: newlines
A string, a tuple of strings, or ``None``, indicating the newlines
translated so far. Depending on the implementation and the initial
constructor flags, this may not be available.
.. attribute:: buffer
The underlying binary buffer (a :class:`BufferedIOBase` instance) that
:class:`TextIOBase` deals with. This is not part of the
:class:`TextIOBase` API and may not exist on some implementations.
.. method:: detach()
Separate the underlying binary buffer from the :class:`TextIOBase` and
return it.
After the underlying buffer has been detached, the :class:`TextIOBase` is
in an unusable state.
Some :class:`TextIOBase` implementations, like :class:`StringIO`, may not
have the concept of an underlying buffer and calling this method will
raise :exc:`UnsupportedOperation`.
.. versionadded:: 3.1
.. method:: read(n)
Read and return at most *n* characters from the stream as a single
:class:`str`. If *n* is negative or ``None``, reads until EOF.
.. method:: readline()
Read until newline or EOF and return a single ``str``. If the stream is
already at EOF, an empty string is returned.
.. method:: write(s)
Write the string *s* to the stream and return the number of characters
written.
.. class:: TextIOWrapper(buffer, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None, line_buffering=False)
A buffered text stream over a :class:`BufferedIOBase` binary stream.
It inherits :class:`TextIOBase`.
*encoding* gives the name of the encoding that the stream will be decoded or
encoded with. It defaults to :func:`locale.getpreferredencoding`.
*errors* is an optional string that specifies how encoding and decoding
errors are to be handled. Pass ``'strict'`` to raise a :exc:`ValueError`
exception if there is an encoding error (the default of ``None`` has the same
effect), or pass ``'ignore'`` to ignore errors. (Note that ignoring encoding
errors can lead to data loss.) ``'replace'`` causes a replacement marker
(such as ``'?'``) to be inserted where there is malformed data. When
writing, ``'xmlcharrefreplace'`` (replace with the appropriate XML character
reference) or ``'backslashreplace'`` (replace with backslashed escape
sequences) can be used. Any other error handling name that has been
registered with :func:`codecs.register_error` is also valid.
*newline* can be ``None``, ``''``, ``'\n'``, ``'\r'``, or ``'\r\n'``. It
controls the handling of line endings. If it is ``None``, universal newlines
is enabled. With this enabled, on input, the lines endings ``'\n'``,
``'\r'``, or ``'\r\n'`` are translated to ``'\n'`` before being returned to
the caller. Conversely, on output, ``'\n'`` is translated to the system
default line separator, :data:`os.linesep`. If *newline* is any other of its
legal values, that newline becomes the newline when the file is read and it
is returned untranslated. On output, ``'\n'`` is converted to the *newline*.
If *line_buffering* is ``True``, :meth:`flush` is implied when a call to
write contains a newline character.
:class:`TextIOWrapper` provides one attribute in addition to those of
:class:`TextIOBase` and its parents:
.. attribute:: line_buffering
Whether line buffering is enabled.
.. class:: StringIO(initial_value='', newline=None)
An in-memory stream for text I/O.
The initial value of the buffer (an empty string by default) can be set by
providing *initial_value*. The *newline* argument works like that of
:class:`TextIOWrapper`. The default is to do no newline translation.
:class:`StringIO` provides this method in addition to those from
:class:`TextIOBase` and its parents:
.. method:: getvalue()
Return a ``str`` containing the entire contents of the buffer at any
time before the :class:`StringIO` object's :meth:`close` method is
called.
Example usage::
import io
output = io.StringIO()
output.write('First line.\n')
print('Second line.', file=output)
# Retrieve file contents -- this will be
# 'First line.\nSecond line.\n'
contents = output.getvalue()
# Close object and discard memory buffer --
# .getvalue() will now raise an exception.
output.close()
.. note::
:class:`StringIO` uses a native text storage and doesn't suffer from the
performance issues of other text streams, such as those based on
:class:`TextIOWrapper`.
.. class:: IncrementalNewlineDecoder
A helper codec that decodes newlines for universal newlines mode. It
inherits :class:`codecs.IncrementalDecoder`.