1729 lines
73 KiB
ReStructuredText
1729 lines
73 KiB
ReStructuredText
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.. _built-in-funcs:
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Built-in Functions
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==================
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The Python interpreter has a number of functions built into it that are always
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available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
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=================== ================= ================== ================= ====================
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.. .. Built-in Functions .. ..
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=================== ================= ================== ================= ====================
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:func:`abs` :func:`divmod` :func:`input` :func:`open` :func:`staticmethod`
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:func:`all` :func:`enumerate` :func:`int` :func:`ord` :func:`str`
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:func:`any` :func:`eval` :func:`isinstance` :func:`pow` :func:`sum`
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:func:`basestring` :func:`execfile` :func:`issubclass` :func:`print` :func:`super`
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:func:`bin` :func:`file` :func:`iter` :func:`property` :func:`tuple`
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:func:`bool` :func:`filter` :func:`len` :func:`range` :func:`type`
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:func:`bytearray` :func:`float` :func:`list` :func:`raw_input` :func:`unichr`
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:func:`callable` :func:`format` :func:`locals` :func:`reduce` :func:`unicode`
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:func:`chr` |func-frozenset|_ :func:`long` :func:`reload` :func:`vars`
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:func:`classmethod` :func:`getattr` :func:`map` :func:`repr` :func:`xrange`
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:func:`cmp` :func:`globals` :func:`max` :func:`reversed` :func:`zip`
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:func:`compile` :func:`hasattr` |func-memoryview|_ :func:`round` :func:`__import__`
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:func:`complex` :func:`hash` :func:`min` |func-set|_ :func:`apply`
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:func:`delattr` :func:`help` :func:`next` :func:`setattr` :func:`buffer`
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|func-dict|_ :func:`hex` :func:`object` :func:`slice` :func:`coerce`
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:func:`dir` :func:`id` :func:`oct` :func:`sorted` :func:`intern`
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=================== ================= ================== ================= ====================
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.. using :func:`dict` would create a link to another page, so local targets are
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used, with replacement texts to make the output in the table consistent
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.. |func-dict| replace:: ``dict()``
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.. |func-frozenset| replace:: ``frozenset()``
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.. |func-memoryview| replace:: ``memoryview()``
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.. |func-set| replace:: ``set()``
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.. function:: abs(x)
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Return the absolute value of a number. The argument may be a plain or long
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integer or a floating point number. If the argument is a complex number, its
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magnitude is returned.
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.. function:: all(iterable)
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Return True if all elements of the *iterable* are true (or if the iterable
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is empty). Equivalent to::
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def all(iterable):
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for element in iterable:
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if not element:
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return False
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return True
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.. versionadded:: 2.5
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.. function:: any(iterable)
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Return True if any element of the *iterable* is true. If the iterable
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is empty, return False. Equivalent to::
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def any(iterable):
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for element in iterable:
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if element:
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return True
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return False
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.. versionadded:: 2.5
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.. function:: basestring()
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This abstract type is the superclass for :class:`str` and :class:`unicode`. It
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cannot be called or instantiated, but it can be used to test whether an object
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is an instance of :class:`str` or :class:`unicode`. ``isinstance(obj,
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basestring)`` is equivalent to ``isinstance(obj, (str, unicode))``.
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.. versionadded:: 2.3
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.. function:: bin(x)
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Convert an integer number to a binary string. The result is a valid Python
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expression. If *x* is not a Python :class:`int` object, it has to define an
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:meth:`__index__` method that returns an integer.
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.. versionadded:: 2.6
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.. function:: bool([x])
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Convert a value to a Boolean, using the standard truth testing procedure. If
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*x* is false or omitted, this returns :const:`False`; otherwise it returns
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:const:`True`. :class:`bool` is also a class, which is a subclass of
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:class:`int`. Class :class:`bool` cannot be subclassed further. Its only
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instances are :const:`False` and :const:`True`.
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.. index:: pair: Boolean; type
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.. versionadded:: 2.2.1
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.. versionchanged:: 2.3
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If no argument is given, this function returns :const:`False`.
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.. function:: bytearray([source[, encoding[, errors]]])
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Return a new array of bytes. The :class:`bytearray` type is a mutable
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sequence of integers in the range 0 <= x < 256. It has most of the usual
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methods of mutable sequences, described in :ref:`typesseq-mutable`, as well
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as most methods that the :class:`str` type has, see :ref:`string-methods`.
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The optional *source* parameter can be used to initialize the array in a few
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different ways:
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* If it is a *string*, you must also give the *encoding* (and optionally,
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*errors*) parameters; :func:`bytearray` then converts the string to
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bytes using :meth:`str.encode`.
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* If it is an *integer*, the array will have that size and will be
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initialized with null bytes.
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* If it is an object conforming to the *buffer* interface, a read-only buffer
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of the object will be used to initialize the bytes array.
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* If it is an *iterable*, it must be an iterable of integers in the range
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``0 <= x < 256``, which are used as the initial contents of the array.
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Without an argument, an array of size 0 is created.
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.. versionadded:: 2.6
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.. function:: callable(object)
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Return :const:`True` if the *object* argument appears callable,
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:const:`False` if not. If this
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returns true, it is still possible that a call fails, but if it is false,
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calling *object* will never succeed. Note that classes are callable (calling a
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class returns a new instance); class instances are callable if they have a
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:meth:`__call__` method.
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.. function:: chr(i)
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Return a string of one character whose ASCII code is the integer *i*. For
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example, ``chr(97)`` returns the string ``'a'``. This is the inverse of
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:func:`ord`. The argument must be in the range [0..255], inclusive;
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:exc:`ValueError` will be raised if *i* is outside that range. See
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also :func:`unichr`.
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.. function:: classmethod(function)
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Return a class method for *function*.
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A class method receives the class as implicit first argument, just like an
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instance method receives the instance. To declare a class method, use this
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idiom::
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class C:
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@classmethod
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def f(cls, arg1, arg2, ...): ...
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The ``@classmethod`` form is a function :term:`decorator` -- see the description
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of function definitions in :ref:`function` for details.
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It can be called either on the class (such as ``C.f()``) or on an instance (such
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as ``C().f()``). The instance is ignored except for its class. If a class
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method is called for a derived class, the derived class object is passed as the
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implied first argument.
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Class methods are different than C++ or Java static methods. If you want those,
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see :func:`staticmethod` in this section.
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For more information on class methods, consult the documentation on the standard
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type hierarchy in :ref:`types`.
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.. versionadded:: 2.2
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.. versionchanged:: 2.4
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Function decorator syntax added.
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.. function:: cmp(x, y)
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Compare the two objects *x* and *y* and return an integer according to the
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outcome. The return value is negative if ``x < y``, zero if ``x == y`` and
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strictly positive if ``x > y``.
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.. function:: compile(source, filename, mode[, flags[, dont_inherit]])
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Compile the *source* into a code or AST object. Code objects can be executed
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by an :keyword:`exec` statement or evaluated by a call to :func:`eval`.
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*source* can either be a string or an AST object. Refer to the :mod:`ast`
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module documentation for information on how to work with AST objects.
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The *filename* argument should give the file from which the code was read;
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pass some recognizable value if it wasn't read from a file (``'<string>'`` is
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commonly used).
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The *mode* argument specifies what kind of code must be compiled; it can be
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``'exec'`` if *source* consists of a sequence of statements, ``'eval'`` if it
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consists of a single expression, or ``'single'`` if it consists of a single
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interactive statement (in the latter case, expression statements that
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evaluate to something other than ``None`` will be printed).
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The optional arguments *flags* and *dont_inherit* control which future
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statements (see :pep:`236`) affect the compilation of *source*. If neither
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is present (or both are zero) the code is compiled with those future
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statements that are in effect in the code that is calling compile. If the
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*flags* argument is given and *dont_inherit* is not (or is zero) then the
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future statements specified by the *flags* argument are used in addition to
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those that would be used anyway. If *dont_inherit* is a non-zero integer then
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the *flags* argument is it -- the future statements in effect around the call
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to compile are ignored.
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Future statements are specified by bits which can be bitwise ORed together to
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specify multiple statements. The bitfield required to specify a given feature
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can be found as the :attr:`compiler_flag` attribute on the :class:`_Feature`
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instance in the :mod:`__future__` module.
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This function raises :exc:`SyntaxError` if the compiled source is invalid,
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and :exc:`TypeError` if the source contains null bytes.
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.. note::
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When compiling a string with multi-line code in ``'single'`` or
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``'eval'`` mode, input must be terminated by at least one newline
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character. This is to facilitate detection of incomplete and complete
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statements in the :mod:`code` module.
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.. versionchanged:: 2.3
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The *flags* and *dont_inherit* arguments were added.
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.. versionchanged:: 2.6
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Support for compiling AST objects.
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.. versionchanged:: 2.7
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Allowed use of Windows and Mac newlines. Also input in ``'exec'`` mode
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does not have to end in a newline anymore.
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.. function:: complex([real[, imag]])
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Create a complex number with the value *real* + *imag*\*j or convert a string or
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number to a complex number. If the first parameter is a string, it will be
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interpreted as a complex number and the function must be called without a second
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parameter. The second parameter can never be a string. Each argument may be any
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numeric type (including complex). If *imag* is omitted, it defaults to zero and
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the function serves as a numeric conversion function like :func:`int`,
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:func:`long` and :func:`float`. If both arguments are omitted, returns ``0j``.
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.. note::
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When converting from a string, the string must not contain whitespace
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around the central ``+`` or ``-`` operator. For example,
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``complex('1+2j')`` is fine, but ``complex('1 + 2j')`` raises
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:exc:`ValueError`.
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The complex type is described in :ref:`typesnumeric`.
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.. function:: delattr(object, name)
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This is a relative of :func:`setattr`. The arguments are an object and a
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string. The string must be the name of one of the object's attributes. The
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function deletes the named attribute, provided the object allows it. For
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example, ``delattr(x, 'foobar')`` is equivalent to ``del x.foobar``.
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.. _func-dict:
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.. function:: dict(**kwarg)
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dict(mapping, **kwarg)
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dict(iterable, **kwarg)
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:noindex:
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Create a new dictionary. The :class:`dict` object is the dictionary class.
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See :class:`dict` and :ref:`typesmapping` for documentation about this
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class.
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For other containers see the built-in :class:`list`, :class:`set`, and
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:class:`tuple` classes, as well as the :mod:`collections` module.
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.. function:: dir([object])
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Without arguments, return the list of names in the current local scope. With an
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argument, attempt to return a list of valid attributes for that object.
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If the object has a method named :meth:`__dir__`, this method will be called and
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must return the list of attributes. This allows objects that implement a custom
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:func:`__getattr__` or :func:`__getattribute__` function to customize the way
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:func:`dir` reports their attributes.
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If the object does not provide :meth:`__dir__`, the function tries its best to
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gather information from the object's :attr:`__dict__` attribute, if defined, and
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from its type object. The resulting list is not necessarily complete, and may
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be inaccurate when the object has a custom :func:`__getattr__`.
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The default :func:`dir` mechanism behaves differently with different types of
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objects, as it attempts to produce the most relevant, rather than complete,
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information:
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* If the object is a module object, the list contains the names of the module's
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attributes.
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* If the object is a type or class object, the list contains the names of its
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attributes, and recursively of the attributes of its bases.
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* Otherwise, the list contains the object's attributes' names, the names of its
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class's attributes, and recursively of the attributes of its class's base
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classes.
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The resulting list is sorted alphabetically. For example:
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>>> import struct
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>>> dir() # show the names in the module namespace
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['__builtins__', '__doc__', '__name__', 'struct']
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>>> dir(struct) # show the names in the struct module
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['Struct', '__builtins__', '__doc__', '__file__', '__name__',
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'__package__', '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
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'unpack', 'unpack_from']
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>>> class Shape(object):
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def __dir__(self):
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return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
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>>> s = Shape()
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>>> dir(s)
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['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
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.. note::
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Because :func:`dir` is supplied primarily as a convenience for use at an
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interactive prompt, it tries to supply an interesting set of names more than it
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tries to supply a rigorously or consistently defined set of names, and its
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detailed behavior may change across releases. For example, metaclass attributes
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are not in the result list when the argument is a class.
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.. function:: divmod(a, b)
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Take two (non complex) numbers as arguments and return a pair of numbers
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consisting of their quotient and remainder when using long division. With mixed
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operand types, the rules for binary arithmetic operators apply. For plain and
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long integers, the result is the same as ``(a // b, a % b)``. For floating point
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numbers the result is ``(q, a % b)``, where *q* is usually ``math.floor(a / b)``
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but may be 1 less than that. In any case ``q * b + a % b`` is very close to
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*a*, if ``a % b`` is non-zero it has the same sign as *b*, and ``0 <= abs(a % b)
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< abs(b)``.
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.. versionchanged:: 2.3
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Using :func:`divmod` with complex numbers is deprecated.
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.. function:: enumerate(sequence, start=0)
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Return an enumerate object. *sequence* must be a sequence, an
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:term:`iterator`, or some other object which supports iteration. The
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:meth:`!next` method of the iterator returned by :func:`enumerate` returns a
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tuple containing a count (from *start* which defaults to 0) and the
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values obtained from iterating over *sequence*::
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>>> seasons = ['Spring', 'Summer', 'Fall', 'Winter']
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>>> list(enumerate(seasons))
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[(0, 'Spring'), (1, 'Summer'), (2, 'Fall'), (3, 'Winter')]
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>>> list(enumerate(seasons, start=1))
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[(1, 'Spring'), (2, 'Summer'), (3, 'Fall'), (4, 'Winter')]
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Equivalent to::
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def enumerate(sequence, start=0):
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n = start
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for elem in sequence:
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yield n, elem
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n += 1
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.. versionadded:: 2.3
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.. versionchanged:: 2.6
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The *start* parameter was added.
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.. function:: eval(expression[, globals[, locals]])
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The arguments are a string and optional globals and locals. If provided,
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*globals* must be a dictionary. If provided, *locals* can be any mapping
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object.
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.. versionchanged:: 2.4
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formerly *locals* was required to be a dictionary.
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The *expression* argument is parsed and evaluated as a Python expression
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(technically speaking, a condition list) using the *globals* and *locals*
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dictionaries as global and local namespace. If the *globals* dictionary is
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present and lacks '__builtins__', the current globals are copied into *globals*
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before *expression* is parsed. This means that *expression* normally has full
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access to the standard :mod:`__builtin__` module and restricted environments are
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propagated. If the *locals* dictionary is omitted it defaults to the *globals*
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dictionary. If both dictionaries are omitted, the expression is executed in the
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environment where :func:`eval` is called. The return value is the result of
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the evaluated expression. Syntax errors are reported as exceptions. Example:
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>>> x = 1
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>>> print eval('x+1')
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2
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This function can also be used to execute arbitrary code objects (such as
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those created by :func:`compile`). In this case pass a code object instead
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of a string. If the code object has been compiled with ``'exec'`` as the
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*mode* argument, :func:`eval`\'s return value will be ``None``.
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Hints: dynamic execution of statements is supported by the :keyword:`exec`
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statement. Execution of statements from a file is supported by the
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:func:`execfile` function. The :func:`globals` and :func:`locals` functions
|
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returns the current global and local dictionary, respectively, which may be
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useful to pass around for use by :func:`eval` or :func:`execfile`.
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See :func:`ast.literal_eval` for a function that can safely evaluate strings
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with expressions containing only literals.
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.. function:: execfile(filename[, globals[, locals]])
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This function is similar to the :keyword:`exec` statement, but parses a file
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instead of a string. It is different from the :keyword:`import` statement in
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that it does not use the module administration --- it reads the file
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unconditionally and does not create a new module. [#]_
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The arguments are a file name and two optional dictionaries. The file is parsed
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and evaluated as a sequence of Python statements (similarly to a module) using
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the *globals* and *locals* dictionaries as global and local namespace. If
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provided, *locals* can be any mapping object. Remember that at module level,
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globals and locals are the same dictionary. If two separate objects are
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passed as *globals* and *locals*, the code will be executed as if it were
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embedded in a class definition.
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.. versionchanged:: 2.4
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formerly *locals* was required to be a dictionary.
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If the *locals* dictionary is omitted it defaults to the *globals* dictionary.
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If both dictionaries are omitted, the expression is executed in the environment
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where :func:`execfile` is called. The return value is ``None``.
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.. note::
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The default *locals* act as described for function :func:`locals` below:
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modifications to the default *locals* dictionary should not be attempted. Pass
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an explicit *locals* dictionary if you need to see effects of the code on
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*locals* after function :func:`execfile` returns. :func:`execfile` cannot be
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used reliably to modify a function's locals.
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.. function:: file(name[, mode[, buffering]])
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Constructor function for the :class:`file` type, described further in section
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:ref:`bltin-file-objects`. The constructor's arguments are the same as those
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of the :func:`open` built-in function described below.
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When opening a file, it's preferable to use :func:`open` instead of invoking
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this constructor directly. :class:`file` is more suited to type testing (for
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|
example, writing ``isinstance(f, file)``).
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.. versionadded:: 2.2
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.. function:: filter(function, iterable)
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Construct a list from those elements of *iterable* for which *function* returns
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true. *iterable* may be either a sequence, a container which supports
|
|
iteration, or an iterator. If *iterable* is a string or a tuple, the result
|
|
also has that type; otherwise it is always a list. If *function* is ``None``,
|
|
the identity function is assumed, that is, all elements of *iterable* that are
|
|
false are removed.
|
|
|
|
Note that ``filter(function, iterable)`` is equivalent to ``[item for item in
|
|
iterable if function(item)]`` if function is not ``None`` and ``[item for item
|
|
in iterable if item]`` if function is ``None``.
|
|
|
|
See :func:`itertools.ifilter` and :func:`itertools.ifilterfalse` for iterator
|
|
versions of this function, including a variation that filters for elements
|
|
where the *function* returns false.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: float([x])
|
|
|
|
Convert a string or a number to floating point. If the argument is a string, it
|
|
must contain a possibly signed decimal or floating point number, possibly
|
|
embedded in whitespace. The argument may also be [+|-]nan or [+|-]inf.
|
|
Otherwise, the argument may be a plain or long integer
|
|
or a floating point number, and a floating point number with the same value
|
|
(within Python's floating point precision) is returned. If no argument is
|
|
given, returns ``0.0``.
|
|
|
|
.. note::
|
|
|
|
.. index::
|
|
single: NaN
|
|
single: Infinity
|
|
|
|
When passing in a string, values for NaN and Infinity may be returned, depending
|
|
on the underlying C library. Float accepts the strings nan, inf and -inf for
|
|
NaN and positive or negative infinity. The case and a leading + are ignored as
|
|
well as a leading - is ignored for NaN. Float always represents NaN and infinity
|
|
as nan, inf or -inf.
|
|
|
|
The float type is described in :ref:`typesnumeric`.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: format(value[, format_spec])
|
|
|
|
.. index::
|
|
pair: str; format
|
|
single: __format__
|
|
|
|
Convert a *value* to a "formatted" representation, as controlled by
|
|
*format_spec*. The interpretation of *format_spec* will depend on the type
|
|
of the *value* argument, however there is a standard formatting syntax that
|
|
is used by most built-in types: :ref:`formatspec`.
|
|
|
|
.. note::
|
|
|
|
``format(value, format_spec)`` merely calls
|
|
``value.__format__(format_spec)``.
|
|
|
|
.. versionadded:: 2.6
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. _func-frozenset:
|
|
.. function:: frozenset([iterable])
|
|
:noindex:
|
|
|
|
Return a new :class:`frozenset` object, optionally with elements taken from
|
|
*iterable*. ``frozenset`` is a built-in class. See :class:`frozenset` and
|
|
:ref:`types-set` for documentation about this class.
|
|
|
|
For other containers see the built-in :class:`set`, :class:`list`,
|
|
:class:`tuple`, and :class:`dict` classes, as well as the :mod:`collections`
|
|
module.
|
|
|
|
.. versionadded:: 2.4
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: getattr(object, name[, default])
|
|
|
|
Return the value of the named attribute of *object*. *name* must be a string.
|
|
If the string is the name of one of the object's attributes, the result is the
|
|
value of that attribute. For example, ``getattr(x, 'foobar')`` is equivalent to
|
|
``x.foobar``. If the named attribute does not exist, *default* is returned if
|
|
provided, otherwise :exc:`AttributeError` is raised.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: globals()
|
|
|
|
Return a dictionary representing the current global symbol table. This is always
|
|
the dictionary of the current module (inside a function or method, this is the
|
|
module where it is defined, not the module from which it is called).
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: hasattr(object, name)
|
|
|
|
The arguments are an object and a string. The result is ``True`` if the string
|
|
is the name of one of the object's attributes, ``False`` if not. (This is
|
|
implemented by calling ``getattr(object, name)`` and seeing whether it raises an
|
|
exception or not.)
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: hash(object)
|
|
|
|
Return the hash value of the object (if it has one). Hash values are integers.
|
|
They are used to quickly compare dictionary keys during a dictionary lookup.
|
|
Numeric values that compare equal have the same hash value (even if they are of
|
|
different types, as is the case for 1 and 1.0).
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: help([object])
|
|
|
|
Invoke the built-in help system. (This function is intended for interactive
|
|
use.) If no argument is given, the interactive help system starts on the
|
|
interpreter console. If the argument is a string, then the string is looked up
|
|
as the name of a module, function, class, method, keyword, or documentation
|
|
topic, and a help page is printed on the console. If the argument is any other
|
|
kind of object, a help page on the object is generated.
|
|
|
|
This function is added to the built-in namespace by the :mod:`site` module.
|
|
|
|
.. versionadded:: 2.2
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: hex(x)
|
|
|
|
Convert an integer number (of any size) to a hexadecimal string. The result is a
|
|
valid Python expression.
|
|
|
|
.. note::
|
|
|
|
To obtain a hexadecimal string representation for a float, use the
|
|
:meth:`float.hex` method.
|
|
|
|
.. versionchanged:: 2.4
|
|
Formerly only returned an unsigned literal.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: id(object)
|
|
|
|
Return the "identity" of an object. This is an integer (or long integer) which
|
|
is guaranteed to be unique and constant for this object during its lifetime.
|
|
Two objects with non-overlapping lifetimes may have the same :func:`id`
|
|
value.
|
|
|
|
.. impl-detail:: This is the address of the object in memory.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: input([prompt])
|
|
|
|
Equivalent to ``eval(raw_input(prompt))``.
|
|
|
|
This function does not catch user errors. If the input is not syntactically
|
|
valid, a :exc:`SyntaxError` will be raised. Other exceptions may be raised if
|
|
there is an error during evaluation.
|
|
|
|
If the :mod:`readline` module was loaded, then :func:`input` will use it to
|
|
provide elaborate line editing and history features.
|
|
|
|
Consider using the :func:`raw_input` function for general input from users.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: int(x=0)
|
|
int(x, base=10)
|
|
|
|
Convert a number or string *x* to an integer, or return ``0`` if no
|
|
arguments are given. If *x* is a number, it can be a plain integer, a long
|
|
integer, or a floating point number. If *x* is floating point, the conversion
|
|
truncates towards zero. If the argument is outside the integer range, the
|
|
function returns a long object instead.
|
|
|
|
If *x* is not a number or if *base* is given, then *x* must be a string or
|
|
Unicode object representing an :ref:`integer literal <integers>` in radix
|
|
*base*. Optionally, the literal can be
|
|
preceded by ``+`` or ``-`` (with no space in between) and surrounded by
|
|
whitespace. A base-n literal consists of the digits 0 to n-1, with ``a``
|
|
to ``z`` (or ``A`` to ``Z``) having
|
|
values 10 to 35. The default *base* is 10. The allowed values are 0 and 2-36.
|
|
Base-2, -8, and -16 literals can be optionally prefixed with ``0b``/``0B``,
|
|
``0o``/``0O``/``0``, or ``0x``/``0X``, as with integer literals in code.
|
|
Base 0 means to interpret the string exactly as an integer literal, so that
|
|
the actual base is 2, 8, 10, or 16.
|
|
|
|
The integer type is described in :ref:`typesnumeric`.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: isinstance(object, classinfo)
|
|
|
|
Return true if the *object* argument is an instance of the *classinfo* argument,
|
|
or of a (direct, indirect or :term:`virtual <abstract base class>`) subclass
|
|
thereof. Also return true if *classinfo*
|
|
is a type object (new-style class) and *object* is an object of that type or of
|
|
a (direct, indirect or :term:`virtual <abstract base class>`) subclass
|
|
thereof. If *object* is not a class instance or
|
|
an object of the given type, the function always returns false. If *classinfo*
|
|
is neither a class object nor a type object, it may be a tuple of class or type
|
|
objects, or may recursively contain other such tuples (other sequence types are
|
|
not accepted). If *classinfo* is not a class, type, or tuple of classes, types,
|
|
and such tuples, a :exc:`TypeError` exception is raised.
|
|
|
|
.. versionchanged:: 2.2
|
|
Support for a tuple of type information was added.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: issubclass(class, classinfo)
|
|
|
|
Return true if *class* is a subclass (direct, indirect or :term:`virtual
|
|
<abstract base class>`) of *classinfo*. A
|
|
class is considered a subclass of itself. *classinfo* may be a tuple of class
|
|
objects, in which case every entry in *classinfo* will be checked. In any other
|
|
case, a :exc:`TypeError` exception is raised.
|
|
|
|
.. versionchanged:: 2.3
|
|
Support for a tuple of type information was added.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: iter(o[, sentinel])
|
|
|
|
Return an :term:`iterator` object. The first argument is interpreted very differently
|
|
depending on the presence of the second argument. Without a second argument, *o*
|
|
must be a collection object which supports the iteration protocol (the
|
|
:meth:`__iter__` method), or it must support the sequence protocol (the
|
|
:meth:`__getitem__` method with integer arguments starting at ``0``). If it
|
|
does not support either of those protocols, :exc:`TypeError` is raised. If the
|
|
second argument, *sentinel*, is given, then *o* must be a callable object. The
|
|
iterator created in this case will call *o* with no arguments for each call to
|
|
its :meth:`~iterator.next` method; if the value returned is equal to *sentinel*,
|
|
:exc:`StopIteration` will be raised, otherwise the value will be returned.
|
|
|
|
One useful application of the second form of :func:`iter` is to read lines of
|
|
a file until a certain line is reached. The following example reads a file
|
|
until the :meth:`readline` method returns an empty string::
|
|
|
|
with open('mydata.txt') as fp:
|
|
for line in iter(fp.readline, ''):
|
|
process_line(line)
|
|
|
|
.. versionadded:: 2.2
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: len(s)
|
|
|
|
Return the length (the number of items) of an object. The argument may be a
|
|
sequence (string, tuple or list) or a mapping (dictionary).
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: list([iterable])
|
|
|
|
Return a list whose items are the same and in the same order as *iterable*'s
|
|
items. *iterable* may be either a sequence, a container that supports
|
|
iteration, or an iterator object. If *iterable* is already a list, a copy is
|
|
made and returned, similar to ``iterable[:]``. For instance, ``list('abc')``
|
|
returns ``['a', 'b', 'c']`` and ``list( (1, 2, 3) )`` returns ``[1, 2, 3]``. If
|
|
no argument is given, returns a new empty list, ``[]``.
|
|
|
|
:class:`list` is a mutable sequence type, as documented in
|
|
:ref:`typesseq`. For other containers see the built in :class:`dict`,
|
|
:class:`set`, and :class:`tuple` classes, and the :mod:`collections` module.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: locals()
|
|
|
|
Update and return a dictionary representing the current local symbol table.
|
|
Free variables are returned by :func:`locals` when it is called in function
|
|
blocks, but not in class blocks.
|
|
|
|
.. note::
|
|
|
|
The contents of this dictionary should not be modified; changes may not
|
|
affect the values of local and free variables used by the interpreter.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: long(x=0)
|
|
long(x, base=10)
|
|
|
|
Convert a string or number to a long integer. If the argument is a string, it
|
|
must contain a possibly signed number of arbitrary size, possibly embedded in
|
|
whitespace. The *base* argument is interpreted in the same way as for
|
|
:func:`int`, and may only be given when *x* is a string. Otherwise, the argument
|
|
may be a plain or long integer or a floating point number, and a long integer
|
|
with the same value is returned. Conversion of floating point numbers to
|
|
integers truncates (towards zero). If no arguments are given, returns ``0L``.
|
|
|
|
The long type is described in :ref:`typesnumeric`.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: map(function, iterable, ...)
|
|
|
|
Apply *function* to every item of *iterable* and return a list of the results.
|
|
If additional *iterable* arguments are passed, *function* must take that many
|
|
arguments and is applied to the items from all iterables in parallel. If one
|
|
iterable is shorter than another it is assumed to be extended with ``None``
|
|
items. If *function* is ``None``, the identity function is assumed; if there
|
|
are multiple arguments, :func:`map` returns a list consisting of tuples
|
|
containing the corresponding items from all iterables (a kind of transpose
|
|
operation). The *iterable* arguments may be a sequence or any iterable object;
|
|
the result is always a list.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: max(iterable[, key])
|
|
max(arg1, arg2, *args[, key])
|
|
|
|
Return the largest item in an iterable or the largest of two or more
|
|
arguments.
|
|
|
|
If one positional argument is provided, *iterable* must be a non-empty
|
|
iterable (such as a non-empty string, tuple or list). The largest item
|
|
in the iterable is returned. If two or more positional arguments are
|
|
provided, the largest of the positional arguments is returned.
|
|
|
|
The optional *key* argument specifies a one-argument ordering function like that
|
|
used for :meth:`list.sort`. The *key* argument, if supplied, must be in keyword
|
|
form (for example, ``max(a,b,c,key=func)``).
|
|
|
|
.. versionchanged:: 2.5
|
|
Added support for the optional *key* argument.
|
|
|
|
.. _func-memoryview:
|
|
.. function:: memoryview(obj)
|
|
:noindex:
|
|
|
|
Return a "memory view" object created from the given argument. See
|
|
:ref:`typememoryview` for more information.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: min(iterable[, key])
|
|
min(arg1, arg2, *args[, key])
|
|
|
|
Return the smallest item in an iterable or the smallest of two or more
|
|
arguments.
|
|
|
|
If one positional argument is provided, *iterable* must be a non-empty
|
|
iterable (such as a non-empty string, tuple or list). The smallest item
|
|
in the iterable is returned. If two or more positional arguments are
|
|
provided, the smallest of the positional arguments is returned.
|
|
|
|
The optional *key* argument specifies a one-argument ordering function like that
|
|
used for :meth:`list.sort`. The *key* argument, if supplied, must be in keyword
|
|
form (for example, ``min(a,b,c,key=func)``).
|
|
|
|
.. versionchanged:: 2.5
|
|
Added support for the optional *key* argument.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: next(iterator[, default])
|
|
|
|
Retrieve the next item from the *iterator* by calling its
|
|
:meth:`~iterator.next` method. If *default* is given, it is returned if the
|
|
iterator is exhausted, otherwise :exc:`StopIteration` is raised.
|
|
|
|
.. versionadded:: 2.6
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: object()
|
|
|
|
Return a new featureless object. :class:`object` is a base for all new style
|
|
classes. It has the methods that are common to all instances of new style
|
|
classes.
|
|
|
|
.. versionadded:: 2.2
|
|
|
|
.. versionchanged:: 2.3
|
|
This function does not accept any arguments. Formerly, it accepted arguments but
|
|
ignored them.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: oct(x)
|
|
|
|
Convert an integer number (of any size) to an octal string. The result is a
|
|
valid Python expression.
|
|
|
|
.. versionchanged:: 2.4
|
|
Formerly only returned an unsigned literal.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: open(name[, mode[, buffering]])
|
|
|
|
Open a file, returning an object of the :class:`file` type described in
|
|
section :ref:`bltin-file-objects`. If the file cannot be opened,
|
|
:exc:`IOError` is raised. When opening a file, it's preferable to use
|
|
:func:`open` instead of invoking the :class:`file` constructor directly.
|
|
|
|
The first two arguments are the same as for ``stdio``'s :c:func:`fopen`:
|
|
*name* is the file name to be opened, and *mode* is a string indicating how
|
|
the file is to be opened.
|
|
|
|
The most commonly-used values of *mode* are ``'r'`` for reading, ``'w'`` for
|
|
writing (truncating the file if it already exists), and ``'a'`` for appending
|
|
(which on *some* Unix systems means that *all* writes append to the end of the
|
|
file regardless of the current seek position). If *mode* is omitted, it
|
|
defaults to ``'r'``. The default is to use text mode, which may convert
|
|
``'\n'`` characters to a platform-specific representation on writing and back
|
|
on reading. Thus, when opening a binary file, you should append ``'b'`` to
|
|
the *mode* value to open the file in binary mode, which will improve
|
|
portability. (Appending ``'b'`` is useful even on systems that don't treat
|
|
binary and text files differently, where it serves as documentation.) See below
|
|
for more possible values of *mode*.
|
|
|
|
.. index::
|
|
single: line-buffered I/O
|
|
single: unbuffered I/O
|
|
single: buffer size, I/O
|
|
single: I/O control; buffering
|
|
|
|
The optional *buffering* argument specifies the file's desired buffer size: 0
|
|
means unbuffered, 1 means line buffered, any other positive value means use a
|
|
buffer of (approximately) that size. A negative *buffering* means to use the
|
|
system default, which is usually line buffered for tty devices and fully
|
|
buffered for other files. If omitted, the system default is used. [#]_
|
|
|
|
Modes ``'r+'``, ``'w+'`` and ``'a+'`` open the file for updating (note that
|
|
``'w+'`` truncates the file). Append ``'b'`` to the mode to open the file in
|
|
binary mode, on systems that differentiate between binary and text files; on
|
|
systems that don't have this distinction, adding the ``'b'`` has no effect.
|
|
|
|
.. index::
|
|
single: universal newlines; open() built-in function
|
|
|
|
In addition to the standard :c:func:`fopen` values *mode* may be ``'U'`` or
|
|
``'rU'``. Python is usually built with :term:`universal newlines` support;
|
|
supplying ``'U'`` opens the file as a text file, but lines may be terminated
|
|
by any of the following: the Unix end-of-line convention ``'\n'``, the
|
|
Macintosh convention ``'\r'``, or the Windows convention ``'\r\n'``. All of
|
|
these external representations are seen as ``'\n'`` by the Python program.
|
|
If Python is built without universal newlines support a *mode* with ``'U'``
|
|
is the same as normal text mode. Note that file objects so opened also have
|
|
an attribute called :attr:`newlines` which has a value of ``None`` (if no
|
|
newlines have yet been seen), ``'\n'``, ``'\r'``, ``'\r\n'``, or a tuple
|
|
containing all the newline types seen.
|
|
|
|
Python enforces that the mode, after stripping ``'U'``, begins with ``'r'``,
|
|
``'w'`` or ``'a'``.
|
|
|
|
Python provides many file handling modules including
|
|
:mod:`fileinput`, :mod:`os`, :mod:`os.path`, :mod:`tempfile`, and
|
|
:mod:`shutil`.
|
|
|
|
.. versionchanged:: 2.5
|
|
Restriction on first letter of mode string introduced.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: ord(c)
|
|
|
|
Given a string of length one, return an integer representing the Unicode code
|
|
point of the character when the argument is a unicode object, or the value of
|
|
the byte when the argument is an 8-bit string. For example, ``ord('a')`` returns
|
|
the integer ``97``, ``ord(u'\u2020')`` returns ``8224``. This is the inverse of
|
|
:func:`chr` for 8-bit strings and of :func:`unichr` for unicode objects. If a
|
|
unicode argument is given and Python was built with UCS2 Unicode, then the
|
|
character's code point must be in the range [0..65535] inclusive; otherwise the
|
|
string length is two, and a :exc:`TypeError` will be raised.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: pow(x, y[, z])
|
|
|
|
Return *x* to the power *y*; if *z* is present, return *x* to the power *y*,
|
|
modulo *z* (computed more efficiently than ``pow(x, y) % z``). The two-argument
|
|
form ``pow(x, y)`` is equivalent to using the power operator: ``x**y``.
|
|
|
|
The arguments must have numeric types. With mixed operand types, the coercion
|
|
rules for binary arithmetic operators apply. For int and long int operands, the
|
|
result has the same type as the operands (after coercion) unless the second
|
|
argument is negative; in that case, all arguments are converted to float and a
|
|
float result is delivered. For example, ``10**2`` returns ``100``, but
|
|
``10**-2`` returns ``0.01``. (This last feature was added in Python 2.2. In
|
|
Python 2.1 and before, if both arguments were of integer types and the second
|
|
argument was negative, an exception was raised.) If the second argument is
|
|
negative, the third argument must be omitted. If *z* is present, *x* and *y*
|
|
must be of integer types, and *y* must be non-negative. (This restriction was
|
|
added in Python 2.2. In Python 2.1 and before, floating 3-argument ``pow()``
|
|
returned platform-dependent results depending on floating-point rounding
|
|
accidents.)
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: print(*objects, sep=' ', end='\\n', file=sys.stdout)
|
|
|
|
Print *objects* to the stream *file*, separated by *sep* and followed by
|
|
*end*. *sep*, *end* and *file*, if present, must be given as keyword
|
|
arguments.
|
|
|
|
All non-keyword arguments are converted to strings like :func:`str` does and
|
|
written to the stream, separated by *sep* and followed by *end*. Both *sep*
|
|
and *end* must be strings; they can also be ``None``, which means to use the
|
|
default values. If no *objects* are given, :func:`print` will just write
|
|
*end*.
|
|
|
|
The *file* argument must be an object with a ``write(string)`` method; if it
|
|
is not present or ``None``, :data:`sys.stdout` will be used. Output buffering
|
|
is determined by *file*. Use ``file.flush()`` to ensure, for instance,
|
|
immediate appearance on a screen.
|
|
|
|
.. note::
|
|
|
|
This function is not normally available as a built-in since the name
|
|
``print`` is recognized as the :keyword:`print` statement. To disable the
|
|
statement and use the :func:`print` function, use this future statement at
|
|
the top of your module::
|
|
|
|
from __future__ import print_function
|
|
|
|
.. versionadded:: 2.6
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: property([fget[, fset[, fdel[, doc]]]])
|
|
|
|
Return a property attribute for :term:`new-style class`\es (classes that
|
|
derive from :class:`object`).
|
|
|
|
*fget* is a function for getting an attribute value, likewise *fset* is a
|
|
function for setting, and *fdel* a function for del'ing, an attribute. Typical
|
|
use is to define a managed attribute ``x``::
|
|
|
|
class C(object):
|
|
def __init__(self):
|
|
self._x = None
|
|
|
|
def getx(self):
|
|
return self._x
|
|
def setx(self, value):
|
|
self._x = value
|
|
def delx(self):
|
|
del self._x
|
|
x = property(getx, setx, delx, "I'm the 'x' property.")
|
|
|
|
If then *c* is an instance of *C*, ``c.x`` will invoke the getter,
|
|
``c.x = value`` will invoke the setter and ``del c.x`` the deleter.
|
|
|
|
If given, *doc* will be the docstring of the property attribute. Otherwise, the
|
|
property will copy *fget*'s docstring (if it exists). This makes it possible to
|
|
create read-only properties easily using :func:`property` as a :term:`decorator`::
|
|
|
|
class Parrot(object):
|
|
def __init__(self):
|
|
self._voltage = 100000
|
|
|
|
@property
|
|
def voltage(self):
|
|
"""Get the current voltage."""
|
|
return self._voltage
|
|
|
|
turns the :meth:`voltage` method into a "getter" for a read-only attribute
|
|
with the same name.
|
|
|
|
A property object has :attr:`getter`, :attr:`setter`, and :attr:`deleter`
|
|
methods usable as decorators that create a copy of the property with the
|
|
corresponding accessor function set to the decorated function. This is
|
|
best explained with an example::
|
|
|
|
class C(object):
|
|
def __init__(self):
|
|
self._x = None
|
|
|
|
@property
|
|
def x(self):
|
|
"""I'm the 'x' property."""
|
|
return self._x
|
|
|
|
@x.setter
|
|
def x(self, value):
|
|
self._x = value
|
|
|
|
@x.deleter
|
|
def x(self):
|
|
del self._x
|
|
|
|
This code is exactly equivalent to the first example. Be sure to give the
|
|
additional functions the same name as the original property (``x`` in this
|
|
case.)
|
|
|
|
The returned property also has the attributes ``fget``, ``fset``, and
|
|
``fdel`` corresponding to the constructor arguments.
|
|
|
|
.. versionadded:: 2.2
|
|
|
|
.. versionchanged:: 2.5
|
|
Use *fget*'s docstring if no *doc* given.
|
|
|
|
.. versionchanged:: 2.6
|
|
The ``getter``, ``setter``, and ``deleter`` attributes were added.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: range(stop)
|
|
range(start, stop[, step])
|
|
|
|
This is a versatile function to create lists containing arithmetic progressions.
|
|
It is most often used in :keyword:`for` loops. The arguments must be plain
|
|
integers. If the *step* argument is omitted, it defaults to ``1``. If the
|
|
*start* argument is omitted, it defaults to ``0``. The full form returns a list
|
|
of plain integers ``[start, start + step, start + 2 * step, ...]``. If *step*
|
|
is positive, the last element is the largest ``start + i * step`` less than
|
|
*stop*; if *step* is negative, the last element is the smallest ``start + i *
|
|
step`` greater than *stop*. *step* must not be zero (or else :exc:`ValueError`
|
|
is raised). Example:
|
|
|
|
>>> range(10)
|
|
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
|
|
>>> range(1, 11)
|
|
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
|
|
>>> range(0, 30, 5)
|
|
[0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25]
|
|
>>> range(0, 10, 3)
|
|
[0, 3, 6, 9]
|
|
>>> range(0, -10, -1)
|
|
[0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9]
|
|
>>> range(0)
|
|
[]
|
|
>>> range(1, 0)
|
|
[]
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: raw_input([prompt])
|
|
|
|
If the *prompt* argument is present, it is written to standard output without a
|
|
trailing newline. The function then reads a line from input, converts it to a
|
|
string (stripping a trailing newline), and returns that. When EOF is read,
|
|
:exc:`EOFError` is raised. Example::
|
|
|
|
>>> s = raw_input('--> ')
|
|
--> Monty Python's Flying Circus
|
|
>>> s
|
|
"Monty Python's Flying Circus"
|
|
|
|
If the :mod:`readline` module was loaded, then :func:`raw_input` will use it to
|
|
provide elaborate line editing and history features.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: reduce(function, iterable[, initializer])
|
|
|
|
Apply *function* of two arguments cumulatively to the items of *iterable*, from
|
|
left to right, so as to reduce the iterable to a single value. For example,
|
|
``reduce(lambda x, y: x+y, [1, 2, 3, 4, 5])`` calculates ``((((1+2)+3)+4)+5)``.
|
|
The left argument, *x*, is the accumulated value and the right argument, *y*, is
|
|
the update value from the *iterable*. If the optional *initializer* is present,
|
|
it is placed before the items of the iterable in the calculation, and serves as
|
|
a default when the iterable is empty. If *initializer* is not given and
|
|
*iterable* contains only one item, the first item is returned.
|
|
Roughly equivalent to::
|
|
|
|
def reduce(function, iterable, initializer=None):
|
|
it = iter(iterable)
|
|
if initializer is None:
|
|
try:
|
|
initializer = next(it)
|
|
except StopIteration:
|
|
raise TypeError('reduce() of empty sequence with no initial value')
|
|
accum_value = initializer
|
|
for x in it:
|
|
accum_value = function(accum_value, x)
|
|
return accum_value
|
|
|
|
.. function:: reload(module)
|
|
|
|
Reload a previously imported *module*. The argument must be a module object, so
|
|
it must have been successfully imported before. This is useful if you have
|
|
edited the module source file using an external editor and want to try out the
|
|
new version without leaving the Python interpreter. The return value is the
|
|
module object (the same as the *module* argument).
|
|
|
|
When ``reload(module)`` is executed:
|
|
|
|
* Python modules' code is recompiled and the module-level code reexecuted,
|
|
defining a new set of objects which are bound to names in the module's
|
|
dictionary. The ``init`` function of extension modules is not called a second
|
|
time.
|
|
|
|
* As with all other objects in Python the old objects are only reclaimed after
|
|
their reference counts drop to zero.
|
|
|
|
* The names in the module namespace are updated to point to any new or changed
|
|
objects.
|
|
|
|
* Other references to the old objects (such as names external to the module) are
|
|
not rebound to refer to the new objects and must be updated in each namespace
|
|
where they occur if that is desired.
|
|
|
|
There are a number of other caveats:
|
|
|
|
If a module is syntactically correct but its initialization fails, the first
|
|
:keyword:`import` statement for it does not bind its name locally, but does
|
|
store a (partially initialized) module object in ``sys.modules``. To reload the
|
|
module you must first :keyword:`import` it again (this will bind the name to the
|
|
partially initialized module object) before you can :func:`reload` it.
|
|
|
|
When a module is reloaded, its dictionary (containing the module's global
|
|
variables) is retained. Redefinitions of names will override the old
|
|
definitions, so this is generally not a problem. If the new version of a module
|
|
does not define a name that was defined by the old version, the old definition
|
|
remains. This feature can be used to the module's advantage if it maintains a
|
|
global table or cache of objects --- with a :keyword:`try` statement it can test
|
|
for the table's presence and skip its initialization if desired::
|
|
|
|
try:
|
|
cache
|
|
except NameError:
|
|
cache = {}
|
|
|
|
It is legal though generally not very useful to reload built-in or dynamically
|
|
loaded modules, except for :mod:`sys`, :mod:`__main__` and :mod:`__builtin__`.
|
|
In many cases, however, extension modules are not designed to be initialized
|
|
more than once, and may fail in arbitrary ways when reloaded.
|
|
|
|
If a module imports objects from another module using :keyword:`from` ...
|
|
:keyword:`import` ..., calling :func:`reload` for the other module does not
|
|
redefine the objects imported from it --- one way around this is to re-execute
|
|
the :keyword:`from` statement, another is to use :keyword:`import` and qualified
|
|
names (*module*.*name*) instead.
|
|
|
|
If a module instantiates instances of a class, reloading the module that defines
|
|
the class does not affect the method definitions of the instances --- they
|
|
continue to use the old class definition. The same is true for derived classes.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: repr(object)
|
|
|
|
Return a string containing a printable representation of an object. This is
|
|
the same value yielded by conversions (reverse quotes). It is sometimes
|
|
useful to be able to access this operation as an ordinary function. For many
|
|
types, this function makes an attempt to return a string that would yield an
|
|
object with the same value when passed to :func:`eval`, otherwise the
|
|
representation is a string enclosed in angle brackets that contains the name
|
|
of the type of the object together with additional information often
|
|
including the name and address of the object. A class can control what this
|
|
function returns for its instances by defining a :meth:`__repr__` method.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: reversed(seq)
|
|
|
|
Return a reverse :term:`iterator`. *seq* must be an object which has
|
|
a :meth:`__reversed__` method or supports the sequence protocol (the
|
|
:meth:`__len__` method and the :meth:`__getitem__` method with integer
|
|
arguments starting at ``0``).
|
|
|
|
.. versionadded:: 2.4
|
|
|
|
.. versionchanged:: 2.6
|
|
Added the possibility to write a custom :meth:`__reversed__` method.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: round(number[, ndigits])
|
|
|
|
Return the floating point value *number* rounded to *ndigits* digits after
|
|
the decimal point. If *ndigits* is omitted, it defaults to zero. The result
|
|
is a floating point number. Values are rounded to the closest multiple of
|
|
10 to the power minus *ndigits*; if two multiples are equally close,
|
|
rounding is done away from 0 (so. for example, ``round(0.5)`` is ``1.0`` and
|
|
``round(-0.5)`` is ``-1.0``).
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. note::
|
|
|
|
The behavior of :func:`round` for floats can be surprising: for example,
|
|
``round(2.675, 2)`` gives ``2.67`` instead of the expected ``2.68``.
|
|
This is not a bug: it's a result of the fact that most decimal fractions
|
|
can't be represented exactly as a float. See :ref:`tut-fp-issues` for
|
|
more information.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. _func-set:
|
|
.. function:: set([iterable])
|
|
:noindex:
|
|
|
|
Return a new :class:`set` object, optionally with elements taken from
|
|
*iterable*. ``set`` is a built-in class. See :class:`set` and
|
|
:ref:`types-set` for documentation about this class.
|
|
|
|
For other containers see the built-in :class:`frozenset`, :class:`list`,
|
|
:class:`tuple`, and :class:`dict` classes, as well as the :mod:`collections`
|
|
module.
|
|
|
|
.. versionadded:: 2.4
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: setattr(object, name, value)
|
|
|
|
This is the counterpart of :func:`getattr`. The arguments are an object, a
|
|
string and an arbitrary value. The string may name an existing attribute or a
|
|
new attribute. The function assigns the value to the attribute, provided the
|
|
object allows it. For example, ``setattr(x, 'foobar', 123)`` is equivalent to
|
|
``x.foobar = 123``.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: slice(stop)
|
|
slice(start, stop[, step])
|
|
|
|
.. index:: single: Numerical Python
|
|
|
|
Return a :term:`slice` object representing the set of indices specified by
|
|
``range(start, stop, step)``. The *start* and *step* arguments default to
|
|
``None``. Slice objects have read-only data attributes :attr:`start`,
|
|
:attr:`stop` and :attr:`step` which merely return the argument values (or their
|
|
default). They have no other explicit functionality; however they are used by
|
|
Numerical Python and other third party extensions. Slice objects are also
|
|
generated when extended indexing syntax is used. For example:
|
|
``a[start:stop:step]`` or ``a[start:stop, i]``. See :func:`itertools.islice`
|
|
for an alternate version that returns an iterator.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: sorted(iterable[, cmp[, key[, reverse]]])
|
|
|
|
Return a new sorted list from the items in *iterable*.
|
|
|
|
The optional arguments *cmp*, *key*, and *reverse* have the same meaning as
|
|
those for the :meth:`list.sort` method (described in section
|
|
:ref:`typesseq-mutable`).
|
|
|
|
*cmp* specifies a custom comparison function of two arguments (iterable
|
|
elements) which should return a negative, zero or positive number depending on
|
|
whether the first argument is considered smaller than, equal to, or larger than
|
|
the second argument: ``cmp=lambda x,y: cmp(x.lower(), y.lower())``. The default
|
|
value is ``None``.
|
|
|
|
*key* specifies a function of one argument that is used to extract a comparison
|
|
key from each list element: ``key=str.lower``. The default value is ``None``
|
|
(compare the elements directly).
|
|
|
|
*reverse* is a boolean value. If set to ``True``, then the list elements are
|
|
sorted as if each comparison were reversed.
|
|
|
|
In general, the *key* and *reverse* conversion processes are much faster
|
|
than specifying an equivalent *cmp* function. This is because *cmp* is
|
|
called multiple times for each list element while *key* and *reverse* touch
|
|
each element only once. Use :func:`functools.cmp_to_key` to convert an
|
|
old-style *cmp* function to a *key* function.
|
|
|
|
For sorting examples and a brief sorting tutorial, see `Sorting HowTo
|
|
<http://wiki.python.org/moin/HowTo/Sorting/>`_\.
|
|
|
|
.. versionadded:: 2.4
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: staticmethod(function)
|
|
|
|
Return a static method for *function*.
|
|
|
|
A static method does not receive an implicit first argument. To declare a static
|
|
method, use this idiom::
|
|
|
|
class C:
|
|
@staticmethod
|
|
def f(arg1, arg2, ...): ...
|
|
|
|
The ``@staticmethod`` form is a function :term:`decorator` -- see the
|
|
description of function definitions in :ref:`function` for details.
|
|
|
|
It can be called either on the class (such as ``C.f()``) or on an instance (such
|
|
as ``C().f()``). The instance is ignored except for its class.
|
|
|
|
Static methods in Python are similar to those found in Java or C++. Also see
|
|
:func:`classmethod` for a variant that is useful for creating alternate
|
|
class constructors.
|
|
|
|
For more information on static methods, consult the documentation on the
|
|
standard type hierarchy in :ref:`types`.
|
|
|
|
.. versionadded:: 2.2
|
|
|
|
.. versionchanged:: 2.4
|
|
Function decorator syntax added.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: str(object='')
|
|
|
|
Return a string containing a nicely printable representation of an object. For
|
|
strings, this returns the string itself. The difference with ``repr(object)``
|
|
is that ``str(object)`` does not always attempt to return a string that is
|
|
acceptable to :func:`eval`; its goal is to return a printable string. If no
|
|
argument is given, returns the empty string, ``''``.
|
|
|
|
For more information on strings see :ref:`typesseq` which describes sequence
|
|
functionality (strings are sequences), and also the string-specific methods
|
|
described in the :ref:`string-methods` section. To output formatted strings
|
|
use template strings or the ``%`` operator described in the
|
|
:ref:`string-formatting` section. In addition see the :ref:`stringservices`
|
|
section. See also :func:`unicode`.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: sum(iterable[, start])
|
|
|
|
Sums *start* and the items of an *iterable* from left to right and returns the
|
|
total. *start* defaults to ``0``. The *iterable*'s items are normally numbers,
|
|
and the start value is not allowed to be a string.
|
|
|
|
For some use cases, there are good alternatives to :func:`sum`.
|
|
The preferred, fast way to concatenate a sequence of strings is by calling
|
|
``''.join(sequence)``. To add floating point values with extended precision,
|
|
see :func:`math.fsum`\. To concatenate a series of iterables, consider using
|
|
:func:`itertools.chain`.
|
|
|
|
.. versionadded:: 2.3
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: super(type[, object-or-type])
|
|
|
|
Return a proxy object that delegates method calls to a parent or sibling
|
|
class of *type*. This is useful for accessing inherited methods that have
|
|
been overridden in a class. The search order is same as that used by
|
|
:func:`getattr` except that the *type* itself is skipped.
|
|
|
|
The :attr:`__mro__` attribute of the *type* lists the method resolution
|
|
search order used by both :func:`getattr` and :func:`super`. The attribute
|
|
is dynamic and can change whenever the inheritance hierarchy is updated.
|
|
|
|
If the second argument is omitted, the super object returned is unbound. If
|
|
the second argument is an object, ``isinstance(obj, type)`` must be true. If
|
|
the second argument is a type, ``issubclass(type2, type)`` must be true (this
|
|
is useful for classmethods).
|
|
|
|
.. note::
|
|
:func:`super` only works for :term:`new-style class`\es.
|
|
|
|
There are two typical use cases for *super*. In a class hierarchy with
|
|
single inheritance, *super* can be used to refer to parent classes without
|
|
naming them explicitly, thus making the code more maintainable. This use
|
|
closely parallels the use of *super* in other programming languages.
|
|
|
|
The second use case is to support cooperative multiple inheritance in a
|
|
dynamic execution environment. This use case is unique to Python and is
|
|
not found in statically compiled languages or languages that only support
|
|
single inheritance. This makes it possible to implement "diamond diagrams"
|
|
where multiple base classes implement the same method. Good design dictates
|
|
that this method have the same calling signature in every case (because the
|
|
order of calls is determined at runtime, because that order adapts
|
|
to changes in the class hierarchy, and because that order can include
|
|
sibling classes that are unknown prior to runtime).
|
|
|
|
For both use cases, a typical superclass call looks like this::
|
|
|
|
class C(B):
|
|
def method(self, arg):
|
|
super(C, self).method(arg)
|
|
|
|
Note that :func:`super` is implemented as part of the binding process for
|
|
explicit dotted attribute lookups such as ``super().__getitem__(name)``.
|
|
It does so by implementing its own :meth:`__getattribute__` method for searching
|
|
classes in a predictable order that supports cooperative multiple inheritance.
|
|
Accordingly, :func:`super` is undefined for implicit lookups using statements or
|
|
operators such as ``super()[name]``.
|
|
|
|
Also note that :func:`super` is not limited to use inside methods. The two
|
|
argument form specifies the arguments exactly and makes the appropriate
|
|
references.
|
|
|
|
For practical suggestions on how to design cooperative classes using
|
|
:func:`super`, see `guide to using super()
|
|
<http://rhettinger.wordpress.com/2011/05/26/super-considered-super/>`_.
|
|
|
|
.. versionadded:: 2.2
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: tuple([iterable])
|
|
|
|
Return a tuple whose items are the same and in the same order as *iterable*'s
|
|
items. *iterable* may be a sequence, a container that supports iteration, or an
|
|
iterator object. If *iterable* is already a tuple, it is returned unchanged.
|
|
For instance, ``tuple('abc')`` returns ``('a', 'b', 'c')`` and ``tuple([1, 2,
|
|
3])`` returns ``(1, 2, 3)``. If no argument is given, returns a new empty
|
|
tuple, ``()``.
|
|
|
|
:class:`tuple` is an immutable sequence type, as documented in
|
|
:ref:`typesseq`. For other containers see the built in :class:`dict`,
|
|
:class:`list`, and :class:`set` classes, and the :mod:`collections` module.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: type(object)
|
|
type(name, bases, dict)
|
|
|
|
.. index:: object: type
|
|
|
|
With one argument, return the type of an *object*. The return value is a
|
|
type object. The :func:`isinstance` built-in function is recommended for
|
|
testing the type of an object.
|
|
|
|
With three arguments, return a new type object. This is essentially a
|
|
dynamic form of the :keyword:`class` statement. The *name* string is the
|
|
class name and becomes the :attr:`__name__` attribute; the *bases* tuple
|
|
itemizes the base classes and becomes the :attr:`__bases__` attribute;
|
|
and the *dict* dictionary is the namespace containing definitions for class
|
|
body and becomes the :attr:`__dict__` attribute. For example, the
|
|
following two statements create identical :class:`type` objects:
|
|
|
|
>>> class X(object):
|
|
... a = 1
|
|
...
|
|
>>> X = type('X', (object,), dict(a=1))
|
|
|
|
.. versionadded:: 2.2
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: unichr(i)
|
|
|
|
Return the Unicode string of one character whose Unicode code is the integer
|
|
*i*. For example, ``unichr(97)`` returns the string ``u'a'``. This is the
|
|
inverse of :func:`ord` for Unicode strings. The valid range for the argument
|
|
depends how Python was configured -- it may be either UCS2 [0..0xFFFF] or UCS4
|
|
[0..0x10FFFF]. :exc:`ValueError` is raised otherwise. For ASCII and 8-bit
|
|
strings see :func:`chr`.
|
|
|
|
.. versionadded:: 2.0
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: unicode(object='')
|
|
unicode(object[, encoding [, errors]])
|
|
|
|
Return the Unicode string version of *object* using one of the following modes:
|
|
|
|
If *encoding* and/or *errors* are given, ``unicode()`` will decode the object
|
|
which can either be an 8-bit string or a character buffer using the codec for
|
|
*encoding*. The *encoding* parameter is a string giving the name of an encoding;
|
|
if the encoding is not known, :exc:`LookupError` is raised. Error handling is
|
|
done according to *errors*; this specifies the treatment of characters which are
|
|
invalid in the input encoding. If *errors* is ``'strict'`` (the default), a
|
|
:exc:`ValueError` is raised on errors, while a value of ``'ignore'`` causes
|
|
errors to be silently ignored, and a value of ``'replace'`` causes the official
|
|
Unicode replacement character, ``U+FFFD``, to be used to replace input
|
|
characters which cannot be decoded. See also the :mod:`codecs` module.
|
|
|
|
If no optional parameters are given, ``unicode()`` will mimic the behaviour of
|
|
``str()`` except that it returns Unicode strings instead of 8-bit strings. More
|
|
precisely, if *object* is a Unicode string or subclass it will return that
|
|
Unicode string without any additional decoding applied.
|
|
|
|
For objects which provide a :meth:`__unicode__` method, it will call this method
|
|
without arguments to create a Unicode string. For all other objects, the 8-bit
|
|
string version or representation is requested and then converted to a Unicode
|
|
string using the codec for the default encoding in ``'strict'`` mode.
|
|
|
|
For more information on Unicode strings see :ref:`typesseq` which describes
|
|
sequence functionality (Unicode strings are sequences), and also the
|
|
string-specific methods described in the :ref:`string-methods` section. To
|
|
output formatted strings use template strings or the ``%`` operator described
|
|
in the :ref:`string-formatting` section. In addition see the
|
|
:ref:`stringservices` section. See also :func:`str`.
|
|
|
|
.. versionadded:: 2.0
|
|
|
|
.. versionchanged:: 2.2
|
|
Support for :meth:`__unicode__` added.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: vars([object])
|
|
|
|
Return the :attr:`__dict__` attribute for a module, class, instance,
|
|
or any other object with a :attr:`__dict__` attribute.
|
|
|
|
Objects such as modules and instances have an updateable :attr:`__dict__`
|
|
attribute; however, other objects may have write restrictions on their
|
|
:attr:`__dict__` attributes (for example, new-style classes use a
|
|
dictproxy to prevent direct dictionary updates).
|
|
|
|
Without an argument, :func:`vars` acts like :func:`locals`. Note, the
|
|
locals dictionary is only useful for reads since updates to the locals
|
|
dictionary are ignored.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: xrange(stop)
|
|
xrange(start, stop[, step])
|
|
|
|
This function is very similar to :func:`range`, but returns an :ref:`xrange
|
|
object <typesseq-xrange>`
|
|
instead of a list. This is an opaque sequence type which yields the same values
|
|
as the corresponding list, without actually storing them all simultaneously.
|
|
The advantage of :func:`xrange` over :func:`range` is minimal (since
|
|
:func:`xrange` still has to create the values when asked for them) except when a
|
|
very large range is used on a memory-starved machine or when all of the range's
|
|
elements are never used (such as when the loop is usually terminated with
|
|
:keyword:`break`). For more information on xrange objects, see
|
|
:ref:`typesseq-xrange` and :ref:`typesseq`.
|
|
|
|
.. impl-detail::
|
|
|
|
:func:`xrange` is intended to be simple and fast. Implementations may
|
|
impose restrictions to achieve this. The C implementation of Python
|
|
restricts all arguments to native C longs ("short" Python integers), and
|
|
also requires that the number of elements fit in a native C long. If a
|
|
larger range is needed, an alternate version can be crafted using the
|
|
:mod:`itertools` module: ``islice(count(start, step),
|
|
(stop-start+step-1+2*(step<0))//step)``.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: zip([iterable, ...])
|
|
|
|
This function returns a list of tuples, where the *i*-th tuple contains the
|
|
*i*-th element from each of the argument sequences or iterables. The returned
|
|
list is truncated in length to the length of the shortest argument sequence.
|
|
When there are multiple arguments which are all of the same length, :func:`zip`
|
|
is similar to :func:`map` with an initial argument of ``None``. With a single
|
|
sequence argument, it returns a list of 1-tuples. With no arguments, it returns
|
|
an empty list.
|
|
|
|
The left-to-right evaluation order of the iterables is guaranteed. This
|
|
makes possible an idiom for clustering a data series into n-length groups
|
|
using ``zip(*[iter(s)]*n)``.
|
|
|
|
:func:`zip` in conjunction with the ``*`` operator can be used to unzip a
|
|
list::
|
|
|
|
>>> x = [1, 2, 3]
|
|
>>> y = [4, 5, 6]
|
|
>>> zipped = zip(x, y)
|
|
>>> zipped
|
|
[(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)]
|
|
>>> x2, y2 = zip(*zipped)
|
|
>>> x == list(x2) and y == list(y2)
|
|
True
|
|
|
|
.. versionadded:: 2.0
|
|
|
|
.. versionchanged:: 2.4
|
|
Formerly, :func:`zip` required at least one argument and ``zip()`` raised a
|
|
:exc:`TypeError` instead of returning an empty list.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: __import__(name[, globals[, locals[, fromlist[, level]]]])
|
|
|
|
.. index::
|
|
statement: import
|
|
module: imp
|
|
|
|
.. note::
|
|
|
|
This is an advanced function that is not needed in everyday Python
|
|
programming, unlike :func:`importlib.import_module`.
|
|
|
|
This function is invoked by the :keyword:`import` statement. It can be
|
|
replaced (by importing the :mod:`__builtin__` module and assigning to
|
|
``__builtin__.__import__``) in order to change semantics of the
|
|
:keyword:`import` statement, but nowadays it is usually simpler to use import
|
|
hooks (see :pep:`302`). Direct use of :func:`__import__` is rare, except in
|
|
cases where you want to import a module whose name is only known at runtime.
|
|
|
|
The function imports the module *name*, potentially using the given *globals*
|
|
and *locals* to determine how to interpret the name in a package context.
|
|
The *fromlist* gives the names of objects or submodules that should be
|
|
imported from the module given by *name*. The standard implementation does
|
|
not use its *locals* argument at all, and uses its *globals* only to
|
|
determine the package context of the :keyword:`import` statement.
|
|
|
|
*level* specifies whether to use absolute or relative imports. The default
|
|
is ``-1`` which indicates both absolute and relative imports will be
|
|
attempted. ``0`` means only perform absolute imports. Positive values for
|
|
*level* indicate the number of parent directories to search relative to the
|
|
directory of the module calling :func:`__import__`.
|
|
|
|
When the *name* variable is of the form ``package.module``, normally, the
|
|
top-level package (the name up till the first dot) is returned, *not* the
|
|
module named by *name*. However, when a non-empty *fromlist* argument is
|
|
given, the module named by *name* is returned.
|
|
|
|
For example, the statement ``import spam`` results in bytecode resembling the
|
|
following code::
|
|
|
|
spam = __import__('spam', globals(), locals(), [], -1)
|
|
|
|
The statement ``import spam.ham`` results in this call::
|
|
|
|
spam = __import__('spam.ham', globals(), locals(), [], -1)
|
|
|
|
Note how :func:`__import__` returns the toplevel module here because this is
|
|
the object that is bound to a name by the :keyword:`import` statement.
|
|
|
|
On the other hand, the statement ``from spam.ham import eggs, sausage as
|
|
saus`` results in ::
|
|
|
|
_temp = __import__('spam.ham', globals(), locals(), ['eggs', 'sausage'], -1)
|
|
eggs = _temp.eggs
|
|
saus = _temp.sausage
|
|
|
|
Here, the ``spam.ham`` module is returned from :func:`__import__`. From this
|
|
object, the names to import are retrieved and assigned to their respective
|
|
names.
|
|
|
|
If you simply want to import a module (potentially within a package) by name,
|
|
use :func:`importlib.import_module`.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. versionchanged:: 2.5
|
|
The level parameter was added.
|
|
|
|
.. versionchanged:: 2.5
|
|
Keyword support for parameters was added.
|
|
|
|
.. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. _non-essential-built-in-funcs:
|
|
|
|
Non-essential Built-in Functions
|
|
================================
|
|
|
|
There are several built-in functions that are no longer essential to learn, know
|
|
or use in modern Python programming. They have been kept here to maintain
|
|
backwards compatibility with programs written for older versions of Python.
|
|
|
|
Python programmers, trainers, students and book writers should feel free to
|
|
bypass these functions without concerns about missing something important.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: apply(function, args[, keywords])
|
|
|
|
The *function* argument must be a callable object (a user-defined or built-in
|
|
function or method, or a class object) and the *args* argument must be a
|
|
sequence. The *function* is called with *args* as the argument list; the number
|
|
of arguments is the length of the tuple. If the optional *keywords* argument is
|
|
present, it must be a dictionary whose keys are strings. It specifies keyword
|
|
arguments to be added to the end of the argument list. Calling :func:`apply` is
|
|
different from just calling ``function(args)``, since in that case there is
|
|
always exactly one argument. The use of :func:`apply` is equivalent to
|
|
``function(*args, **keywords)``.
|
|
|
|
.. deprecated:: 2.3
|
|
Use ``function(*args, **keywords)`` instead of
|
|
``apply(function, args, keywords)`` (see :ref:`tut-unpacking-arguments`).
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: buffer(object[, offset[, size]])
|
|
|
|
The *object* argument must be an object that supports the buffer call interface
|
|
(such as strings, arrays, and buffers). A new buffer object will be created
|
|
which references the *object* argument. The buffer object will be a slice from
|
|
the beginning of *object* (or from the specified *offset*). The slice will
|
|
extend to the end of *object* (or will have a length given by the *size*
|
|
argument).
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: coerce(x, y)
|
|
|
|
Return a tuple consisting of the two numeric arguments converted to a common
|
|
type, using the same rules as used by arithmetic operations. If coercion is not
|
|
possible, raise :exc:`TypeError`.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. function:: intern(string)
|
|
|
|
Enter *string* in the table of "interned" strings and return the interned string
|
|
-- which is *string* itself or a copy. Interning strings is useful to gain a
|
|
little performance on dictionary lookup -- if the keys in a dictionary are
|
|
interned, and the lookup key is interned, the key comparisons (after hashing)
|
|
can be done by a pointer compare instead of a string compare. Normally, the
|
|
names used in Python programs are automatically interned, and the dictionaries
|
|
used to hold module, class or instance attributes have interned keys.
|
|
|
|
.. versionchanged:: 2.3
|
|
Interned strings are not immortal (like they used to be in Python 2.2 and
|
|
before); you must keep a reference to the return value of :func:`intern` around
|
|
to benefit from it.
|
|
|
|
.. rubric:: Footnotes
|
|
|
|
.. [#] It is used relatively rarely so does not warrant being made into a statement.
|
|
|
|
.. [#] Specifying a buffer size currently has no effect on systems that don't have
|
|
:c:func:`setvbuf`. The interface to specify the buffer size is not done using a
|
|
method that calls :c:func:`setvbuf`, because that may dump core when called after
|
|
any I/O has been performed, and there's no reliable way to determine whether
|
|
this is the case.
|
|
|
|
.. [#] In the current implementation, local variable bindings cannot normally be
|
|
affected this way, but variables retrieved from other scopes (such as modules)
|
|
can be. This may change.
|
|
|