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:mod:`dis` --- Disassembler for Python bytecode
===============================================
.. module:: dis
:synopsis: Disassembler for Python bytecode.
**Source code:** :source:`Lib/dis.py`
--------------
The :mod:`dis` module supports the analysis of CPython :term:`bytecode` by
disassembling it. The CPython bytecode which this module takes as an input is
defined in the file :file:`Include/opcode.h` and used by the compiler and the
interpreter.
.. impl-detail::
Bytecode is an implementation detail of the CPython interpreter. No
guarantees are made that bytecode will not be added, removed, or changed
between versions of Python. Use of this module should not be considered to
work across Python VMs or Python releases.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Use 2 bytes for each instruction. Previously the number of bytes varied
by instruction.
Example: Given the function :func:`myfunc`::
def myfunc(alist):
return len(alist)
the following command can be used to display the disassembly of
:func:`myfunc`::
>>> dis.dis(myfunc)
2 0 LOAD_GLOBAL 0 (len)
2 LOAD_FAST 0 (alist)
4 CALL_FUNCTION 1
6 RETURN_VALUE
(The "2" is a line number).
Bytecode analysis
-----------------
.. versionadded:: 3.4
The bytecode analysis API allows pieces of Python code to be wrapped in a
:class:`Bytecode` object that provides easy access to details of the compiled
code.
.. class:: Bytecode(x, *, first_line=None, current_offset=None)
Analyse the bytecode corresponding to a function, generator, method, string
of source code, or a code object (as returned by :func:`compile`).
This is a convenience wrapper around many of the functions listed below, most
notably :func:`get_instructions`, as iterating over a :class:`Bytecode`
instance yields the bytecode operations as :class:`Instruction` instances.
If *first_line* is not ``None``, it indicates the line number that should be
reported for the first source line in the disassembled code. Otherwise, the
source line information (if any) is taken directly from the disassembled code
object.
If *current_offset* is not ``None``, it refers to an instruction offset in the
disassembled code. Setting this means :meth:`.dis` will display a "current
instruction" marker against the specified opcode.
.. classmethod:: from_traceback(tb)
Construct a :class:`Bytecode` instance from the given traceback, setting
*current_offset* to the instruction responsible for the exception.
.. data:: codeobj
The compiled code object.
.. data:: first_line
The first source line of the code object (if available)
.. method:: dis()
Return a formatted view of the bytecode operations (the same as printed by
:func:`dis.dis`, but returned as a multi-line string).
.. method:: info()
Return a formatted multi-line string with detailed information about the
code object, like :func:`code_info`.
Example::
>>> bytecode = dis.Bytecode(myfunc)
>>> for instr in bytecode:
... print(instr.opname)
...
LOAD_GLOBAL
LOAD_FAST
CALL_FUNCTION
RETURN_VALUE
Analysis functions
------------------
The :mod:`dis` module also defines the following analysis functions that convert
the input directly to the desired output. They can be useful if only a single
operation is being performed, so the intermediate analysis object isn't useful:
.. function:: code_info(x)
Return a formatted multi-line string with detailed code object information
for the supplied function, generator, method, source code string or code object.
Note that the exact contents of code info strings are highly implementation
dependent and they may change arbitrarily across Python VMs or Python
releases.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
.. function:: show_code(x, *, file=None)
Print detailed code object information for the supplied function, method,
source code string or code object to *file* (or ``sys.stdout`` if *file*
is not specified).
This is a convenient shorthand for ``print(code_info(x), file=file)``,
intended for interactive exploration at the interpreter prompt.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
.. versionchanged:: 3.4
Added *file* parameter.
.. function:: dis(x=None, *, file=None)
Disassemble the *x* object. *x* can denote either a module, a class, a
method, a function, a generator, a code object, a string of source code or
a byte sequence of raw bytecode. For a module, it disassembles all functions.
For a class, it disassembles all methods (including class and static methods).
For a code object or sequence of raw bytecode, it prints one line per bytecode
instruction. Strings are first compiled to code objects with the :func:`compile`
built-in function before being disassembled. If no object is provided, this
function disassembles the last traceback.
The disassembly is written as text to the supplied *file* argument if
provided and to ``sys.stdout`` otherwise.
.. versionchanged:: 3.4
Added *file* parameter.
.. function:: distb(tb=None, *, file=None)
Disassemble the top-of-stack function of a traceback, using the last
traceback if none was passed. The instruction causing the exception is
indicated.
The disassembly is written as text to the supplied *file* argument if
provided and to ``sys.stdout`` otherwise.
.. versionchanged:: 3.4
Added *file* parameter.
.. function:: disassemble(code, lasti=-1, *, file=None)
disco(code, lasti=-1, *, file=None)
Disassemble a code object, indicating the last instruction if *lasti* was
provided. The output is divided in the following columns:
#. the line number, for the first instruction of each line
#. the current instruction, indicated as ``-->``,
#. a labelled instruction, indicated with ``>>``,
#. the address of the instruction,
#. the operation code name,
#. operation parameters, and
#. interpretation of the parameters in parentheses.
The parameter interpretation recognizes local and global variable names,
constant values, branch targets, and compare operators.
The disassembly is written as text to the supplied *file* argument if
provided and to ``sys.stdout`` otherwise.
.. versionchanged:: 3.4
Added *file* parameter.
.. function:: get_instructions(x, *, first_line=None)
Return an iterator over the instructions in the supplied function, method,
source code string or code object.
The iterator generates a series of :class:`Instruction` named tuples giving
the details of each operation in the supplied code.
If *first_line* is not ``None``, it indicates the line number that should be
reported for the first source line in the disassembled code. Otherwise, the
source line information (if any) is taken directly from the disassembled code
object.
.. versionadded:: 3.4
.. function:: findlinestarts(code)
This generator function uses the ``co_firstlineno`` and ``co_lnotab``
attributes of the code object *code* to find the offsets which are starts of
lines in the source code. They are generated as ``(offset, lineno)`` pairs.
See :source:`Objects/lnotab_notes.txt` for the ``co_lnotab`` format and
how to decode it.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Line numbers can be decreasing. Before, they were always increasing.
.. function:: findlabels(code)
Detect all offsets in the code object *code* which are jump targets, and
return a list of these offsets.
.. function:: stack_effect(opcode, [oparg])
Compute the stack effect of *opcode* with argument *oparg*.
.. versionadded:: 3.4
.. _bytecodes:
Python Bytecode Instructions
----------------------------
The :func:`get_instructions` function and :class:`Bytecode` class provide
details of bytecode instructions as :class:`Instruction` instances:
.. class:: Instruction
Details for a bytecode operation
.. data:: opcode
numeric code for operation, corresponding to the opcode values listed
below and the bytecode values in the :ref:`opcode_collections`.
.. data:: opname
human readable name for operation
.. data:: arg
numeric argument to operation (if any), otherwise ``None``
.. data:: argval
resolved arg value (if known), otherwise same as arg
.. data:: argrepr
human readable description of operation argument
.. data:: offset
start index of operation within bytecode sequence
.. data:: starts_line
line started by this opcode (if any), otherwise ``None``
.. data:: is_jump_target
``True`` if other code jumps to here, otherwise ``False``
.. versionadded:: 3.4
The Python compiler currently generates the following bytecode instructions.
**General instructions**
.. opcode:: NOP
Do nothing code. Used as a placeholder by the bytecode optimizer.
.. opcode:: POP_TOP
Removes the top-of-stack (TOS) item.
.. opcode:: ROT_TWO
Swaps the two top-most stack items.
.. opcode:: ROT_THREE
Lifts second and third stack item one position up, moves top down to position
three.
.. opcode:: DUP_TOP
Duplicates the reference on top of the stack.
.. opcode:: DUP_TOP_TWO
Duplicates the two references on top of the stack, leaving them in the
same order.
**Unary operations**
Unary operations take the top of the stack, apply the operation, and push the
result back on the stack.
.. opcode:: UNARY_POSITIVE
Implements ``TOS = +TOS``.
.. opcode:: UNARY_NEGATIVE
Implements ``TOS = -TOS``.
.. opcode:: UNARY_NOT
Implements ``TOS = not TOS``.
.. opcode:: UNARY_INVERT
Implements ``TOS = ~TOS``.
.. opcode:: GET_ITER
Implements ``TOS = iter(TOS)``.
.. opcode:: GET_YIELD_FROM_ITER
If ``TOS`` is a :term:`generator iterator` or :term:`coroutine` object
it is left as is. Otherwise, implements ``TOS = iter(TOS)``.
.. versionadded:: 3.5
**Binary operations**
Binary operations remove the top of the stack (TOS) and the second top-most
stack item (TOS1) from the stack. They perform the operation, and put the
result back on the stack.
.. opcode:: BINARY_POWER
Implements ``TOS = TOS1 ** TOS``.
.. opcode:: BINARY_MULTIPLY
Implements ``TOS = TOS1 * TOS``.
.. opcode:: BINARY_MATRIX_MULTIPLY
Implements ``TOS = TOS1 @ TOS``.
.. versionadded:: 3.5
.. opcode:: BINARY_FLOOR_DIVIDE
Implements ``TOS = TOS1 // TOS``.
.. opcode:: BINARY_TRUE_DIVIDE
Implements ``TOS = TOS1 / TOS``.
.. opcode:: BINARY_MODULO
Implements ``TOS = TOS1 % TOS``.
.. opcode:: BINARY_ADD
Implements ``TOS = TOS1 + TOS``.
.. opcode:: BINARY_SUBTRACT
Implements ``TOS = TOS1 - TOS``.
.. opcode:: BINARY_SUBSCR
Implements ``TOS = TOS1[TOS]``.
.. opcode:: BINARY_LSHIFT
Implements ``TOS = TOS1 << TOS``.
.. opcode:: BINARY_RSHIFT
Implements ``TOS = TOS1 >> TOS``.
.. opcode:: BINARY_AND
Implements ``TOS = TOS1 & TOS``.
.. opcode:: BINARY_XOR
Implements ``TOS = TOS1 ^ TOS``.
.. opcode:: BINARY_OR
Implements ``TOS = TOS1 | TOS``.
**In-place operations**
In-place operations are like binary operations, in that they remove TOS and
TOS1, and push the result back on the stack, but the operation is done in-place
when TOS1 supports it, and the resulting TOS may be (but does not have to be)
the original TOS1.
.. opcode:: INPLACE_POWER
Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 ** TOS``.
.. opcode:: INPLACE_MULTIPLY
Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 * TOS``.
.. opcode:: INPLACE_MATRIX_MULTIPLY
Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 @ TOS``.
.. versionadded:: 3.5
.. opcode:: INPLACE_FLOOR_DIVIDE
Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 // TOS``.
.. opcode:: INPLACE_TRUE_DIVIDE
Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 / TOS``.
.. opcode:: INPLACE_MODULO
Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 % TOS``.
.. opcode:: INPLACE_ADD
Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 + TOS``.
.. opcode:: INPLACE_SUBTRACT
Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 - TOS``.
.. opcode:: INPLACE_LSHIFT
Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 << TOS``.
.. opcode:: INPLACE_RSHIFT
Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 >> TOS``.
.. opcode:: INPLACE_AND
Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 & TOS``.
.. opcode:: INPLACE_XOR
Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 ^ TOS``.
.. opcode:: INPLACE_OR
Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 | TOS``.
.. opcode:: STORE_SUBSCR
Implements ``TOS1[TOS] = TOS2``.
.. opcode:: DELETE_SUBSCR
Implements ``del TOS1[TOS]``.
**Coroutine opcodes**
.. opcode:: GET_AWAITABLE
Implements ``TOS = get_awaitable(TOS)``, where ``get_awaitable(o)``
returns ``o`` if ``o`` is a coroutine object or a generator object with
the CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE flag, or resolves
``o.__await__``.
.. opcode:: GET_AITER
Implements ``TOS = get_awaitable(TOS.__aiter__())``. See ``GET_AWAITABLE``
for details about ``get_awaitable``
.. opcode:: GET_ANEXT
Implements ``PUSH(get_awaitable(TOS.__anext__()))``. See ``GET_AWAITABLE``
for details about ``get_awaitable``
.. opcode:: BEFORE_ASYNC_WITH
Resolves ``__aenter__`` and ``__aexit__`` from the object on top of the
stack. Pushes ``__aexit__`` and result of ``__aenter__()`` to the stack.
.. opcode:: SETUP_ASYNC_WITH
Creates a new frame object.
**Miscellaneous opcodes**
.. opcode:: PRINT_EXPR
Implements the expression statement for the interactive mode. TOS is removed
from the stack and printed. In non-interactive mode, an expression statement
is terminated with :opcode:`POP_TOP`.
.. opcode:: BREAK_LOOP
Terminates a loop due to a :keyword:`break` statement.
.. opcode:: CONTINUE_LOOP (target)
Continues a loop due to a :keyword:`continue` statement. *target* is the
address to jump to (which should be a :opcode:`FOR_ITER` instruction).
.. opcode:: SET_ADD (i)
Calls ``set.add(TOS1[-i], TOS)``. Used to implement set comprehensions.
.. opcode:: LIST_APPEND (i)
Calls ``list.append(TOS[-i], TOS)``. Used to implement list comprehensions.
.. opcode:: MAP_ADD (i)
Calls ``dict.setitem(TOS1[-i], TOS, TOS1)``. Used to implement dict
comprehensions.
For all of the :opcode:`SET_ADD`, :opcode:`LIST_APPEND` and :opcode:`MAP_ADD`
instructions, while the added value or key/value pair is popped off, the
container object remains on the stack so that it is available for further
iterations of the loop.
.. opcode:: RETURN_VALUE
Returns with TOS to the caller of the function.
.. opcode:: YIELD_VALUE
Pops TOS and yields it from a :term:`generator`.
.. opcode:: YIELD_FROM
Pops TOS and delegates to it as a subiterator from a :term:`generator`.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. opcode:: SETUP_ANNOTATIONS
Checks whether ``__annotations__`` is defined in ``locals()``, if not it is
set up to an empty ``dict``. This opcode is only emitted if a class
or module body contains :term:`variable annotations <variable annotation>`
statically.
.. versionadded:: 3.6
.. opcode:: IMPORT_STAR
Loads all symbols not starting with ``'_'`` directly from the module TOS to
the local namespace. The module is popped after loading all names. This
opcode implements ``from module import *``.
.. opcode:: POP_BLOCK
Removes one block from the block stack. Per frame, there is a stack of
blocks, denoting nested loops, try statements, and such.
.. opcode:: POP_EXCEPT
Removes one block from the block stack. The popped block must be an exception
handler block, as implicitly created when entering an except handler. In
addition to popping extraneous values from the frame stack, the last three
popped values are used to restore the exception state.
.. opcode:: END_FINALLY
Terminates a :keyword:`finally` clause. The interpreter recalls whether the
exception has to be re-raised, or whether the function returns, and continues
with the outer-next block.
.. opcode:: LOAD_BUILD_CLASS
Pushes :func:`builtins.__build_class__` onto the stack. It is later called
by :opcode:`CALL_FUNCTION` to construct a class.
.. opcode:: SETUP_WITH (delta)
This opcode performs several operations before a with block starts. First,
it loads :meth:`~object.__exit__` from the context manager and pushes it onto
the stack for later use by :opcode:`WITH_CLEANUP`. Then,
:meth:`~object.__enter__` is called, and a finally block pointing to *delta*
is pushed. Finally, the result of calling the enter method is pushed onto
the stack. The next opcode will either ignore it (:opcode:`POP_TOP`), or
store it in (a) variable(s) (:opcode:`STORE_FAST`, :opcode:`STORE_NAME`, or
:opcode:`UNPACK_SEQUENCE`).
.. opcode:: WITH_CLEANUP_START
Cleans up the stack when a :keyword:`with` statement block exits. TOS is the
context manager's :meth:`__exit__` bound method. Below TOS are 1--3 values
indicating how/why the finally clause was entered:
* SECOND = ``None``
* (SECOND, THIRD) = (``WHY_{RETURN,CONTINUE}``), retval
* SECOND = ``WHY_*``; no retval below it
* (SECOND, THIRD, FOURTH) = exc_info()
In the last case, ``TOS(SECOND, THIRD, FOURTH)`` is called, otherwise
``TOS(None, None, None)``. Pushes SECOND and result of the call
to the stack.
.. opcode:: WITH_CLEANUP_FINISH
Pops exception type and result of 'exit' function call from the stack.
If the stack represents an exception, *and* the function call returns a
'true' value, this information is "zapped" and replaced with a single
``WHY_SILENCED`` to prevent :opcode:`END_FINALLY` from re-raising the
exception. (But non-local gotos will still be resumed.)
.. XXX explain the WHY stuff!
All of the following opcodes use their arguments.
.. opcode:: STORE_NAME (namei)
Implements ``name = TOS``. *namei* is the index of *name* in the attribute
:attr:`co_names` of the code object. The compiler tries to use
:opcode:`STORE_FAST` or :opcode:`STORE_GLOBAL` if possible.
.. opcode:: DELETE_NAME (namei)
Implements ``del name``, where *namei* is the index into :attr:`co_names`
attribute of the code object.
.. opcode:: UNPACK_SEQUENCE (count)
Unpacks TOS into *count* individual values, which are put onto the stack
right-to-left.
.. opcode:: UNPACK_EX (counts)
Implements assignment with a starred target: Unpacks an iterable in TOS into
individual values, where the total number of values can be smaller than the
number of items in the iterable: one of the new values will be a list of all
leftover items.
The low byte of *counts* is the number of values before the list value, the
high byte of *counts* the number of values after it. The resulting values
are put onto the stack right-to-left.
.. opcode:: STORE_ATTR (namei)
Implements ``TOS.name = TOS1``, where *namei* is the index of name in
:attr:`co_names`.
.. opcode:: DELETE_ATTR (namei)
Implements ``del TOS.name``, using *namei* as index into :attr:`co_names`.
.. opcode:: STORE_GLOBAL (namei)
Works as :opcode:`STORE_NAME`, but stores the name as a global.
.. opcode:: DELETE_GLOBAL (namei)
Works as :opcode:`DELETE_NAME`, but deletes a global name.
.. opcode:: LOAD_CONST (consti)
Pushes ``co_consts[consti]`` onto the stack.
.. opcode:: LOAD_NAME (namei)
Pushes the value associated with ``co_names[namei]`` onto the stack.
.. opcode:: BUILD_TUPLE (count)
Creates a tuple consuming *count* items from the stack, and pushes the
resulting tuple onto the stack.
.. opcode:: BUILD_LIST (count)
Works as :opcode:`BUILD_TUPLE`, but creates a list.
.. opcode:: BUILD_SET (count)
Works as :opcode:`BUILD_TUPLE`, but creates a set.
.. opcode:: BUILD_MAP (count)
Pushes a new dictionary object onto the stack. Pops ``2 * count`` items
so that the dictionary holds *count* entries:
``{..., TOS3: TOS2, TOS1: TOS}``.
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
The dictionary is created from stack items instead of creating an
empty dictionary pre-sized to hold *count* items.
.. opcode:: BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP (count)
The version of :opcode:`BUILD_MAP` specialized for constant keys. *count*
values are consumed from the stack. The top element on the stack contains
a tuple of keys.
.. versionadded:: 3.6
.. opcode:: BUILD_STRING (count)
Concatenates *count* strings from the stack and pushes the resulting string
onto the stack.
.. versionadded:: 3.6
.. opcode:: BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK (count)
Pops *count* iterables from the stack, joins them in a single tuple,
and pushes the result. Implements iterable unpacking in tuple
displays ``(*x, *y, *z)``.
.. versionadded:: 3.5
.. opcode:: BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL (count)
This is similar to :opcode:`BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK`,
but is used for ``f(*x, *y, *z)`` call syntax. The stack item at position
``count + 1`` should be the corresponding callable ``f``.
.. versionadded:: 3.6
.. opcode:: BUILD_LIST_UNPACK (count)
This is similar to :opcode:`BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK`, but pushes a list
instead of tuple. Implements iterable unpacking in list
displays ``[*x, *y, *z]``.
.. versionadded:: 3.5
.. opcode:: BUILD_SET_UNPACK (count)
This is similar to :opcode:`BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK`, but pushes a set
instead of tuple. Implements iterable unpacking in set
displays ``{*x, *y, *z}``.
.. versionadded:: 3.5
.. opcode:: BUILD_MAP_UNPACK (count)
Pops *count* mappings from the stack, merges them into a single dictionary,
and pushes the result. Implements dictionary unpacking in dictionary
displays ``{**x, **y, **z}``.
.. versionadded:: 3.5
.. opcode:: BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL (count)
This is similar to :opcode:`BUILD_MAP_UNPACK`,
but is used for ``f(**x, **y, **z)`` call syntax. The stack item at
position ``count + 2`` should be the corresponding callable ``f``.
.. versionadded:: 3.5
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
The position of the callable is determined by adding 2 to the opcode
argument instead of encoding it in the second byte of the argument.
.. opcode:: LOAD_ATTR (namei)
Replaces TOS with ``getattr(TOS, co_names[namei])``.
.. opcode:: COMPARE_OP (opname)
Performs a Boolean operation. The operation name can be found in
``cmp_op[opname]``.
.. opcode:: IMPORT_NAME (namei)
Imports the module ``co_names[namei]``. TOS and TOS1 are popped and provide
the *fromlist* and *level* arguments of :func:`__import__`. The module
object is pushed onto the stack. The current namespace is not affected: for
a proper import statement, a subsequent :opcode:`STORE_FAST` instruction
modifies the namespace.
.. opcode:: IMPORT_FROM (namei)
Loads the attribute ``co_names[namei]`` from the module found in TOS. The
resulting object is pushed onto the stack, to be subsequently stored by a
:opcode:`STORE_FAST` instruction.
.. opcode:: JUMP_FORWARD (delta)
Increments bytecode counter by *delta*.
.. opcode:: POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE (target)
If TOS is true, sets the bytecode counter to *target*. TOS is popped.
.. opcode:: POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE (target)
If TOS is false, sets the bytecode counter to *target*. TOS is popped.
.. opcode:: JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP (target)
If TOS is true, sets the bytecode counter to *target* and leaves TOS on the
stack. Otherwise (TOS is false), TOS is popped.
.. opcode:: JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP (target)
If TOS is false, sets the bytecode counter to *target* and leaves TOS on the
stack. Otherwise (TOS is true), TOS is popped.
.. opcode:: JUMP_ABSOLUTE (target)
Set bytecode counter to *target*.
.. opcode:: FOR_ITER (delta)
TOS is an :term:`iterator`. Call its :meth:`~iterator.__next__` method. If
this yields a new value, push it on the stack (leaving the iterator below
it). If the iterator indicates it is exhausted TOS is popped, and the byte
code counter is incremented by *delta*.
.. opcode:: LOAD_GLOBAL (namei)
Loads the global named ``co_names[namei]`` onto the stack.
.. opcode:: SETUP_LOOP (delta)
Pushes a block for a loop onto the block stack. The block spans from the
current instruction with a size of *delta* bytes.
.. opcode:: SETUP_EXCEPT (delta)
Pushes a try block from a try-except clause onto the block stack. *delta*
points to the first except block.
.. opcode:: SETUP_FINALLY (delta)
Pushes a try block from a try-except clause onto the block stack. *delta*
points to the finally block.
.. opcode:: LOAD_FAST (var_num)
Pushes a reference to the local ``co_varnames[var_num]`` onto the stack.
.. opcode:: STORE_FAST (var_num)
Stores TOS into the local ``co_varnames[var_num]``.
.. opcode:: DELETE_FAST (var_num)
Deletes local ``co_varnames[var_num]``.
.. opcode:: STORE_ANNOTATION (namei)
Stores TOS as ``locals()['__annotations__'][co_names[namei]] = TOS``.
.. versionadded:: 3.6
.. opcode:: LOAD_CLOSURE (i)
Pushes a reference to the cell contained in slot *i* of the cell and free
variable storage. The name of the variable is ``co_cellvars[i]`` if *i* is
less than the length of *co_cellvars*. Otherwise it is ``co_freevars[i -
len(co_cellvars)]``.
.. opcode:: LOAD_DEREF (i)
Loads the cell contained in slot *i* of the cell and free variable storage.
Pushes a reference to the object the cell contains on the stack.
.. opcode:: LOAD_CLASSDEREF (i)
Much like :opcode:`LOAD_DEREF` but first checks the locals dictionary before
consulting the cell. This is used for loading free variables in class
bodies.
.. opcode:: STORE_DEREF (i)
Stores TOS into the cell contained in slot *i* of the cell and free variable
storage.
.. opcode:: DELETE_DEREF (i)
Empties the cell contained in slot *i* of the cell and free variable storage.
Used by the :keyword:`del` statement.
.. opcode:: RAISE_VARARGS (argc)
Raises an exception. *argc* indicates the number of parameters to the raise
statement, ranging from 0 to 3. The handler will find the traceback as TOS2,
the parameter as TOS1, and the exception as TOS.
.. opcode:: CALL_FUNCTION (argc)
Calls a function. *argc* indicates the number of positional arguments.
The positional arguments are on the stack, with the right-most argument
on top. Below the arguments, the function object to call is on the stack.
Pops all function arguments, and the function itself off the stack, and
pushes the return value.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
This opcode is used only for calls with positional arguments.
.. opcode:: CALL_FUNCTION_KW (argc)
Calls a function. *argc* indicates the number of arguments (positional
and keyword). The top element on the stack contains a tuple of keyword
argument names. Below the tuple, keyword arguments are on the stack, in
the order corresponding to the tuple. Below the keyword arguments, the
positional arguments are on the stack, with the right-most parameter on
top. Below the arguments, the function object to call is on the stack.
Pops all function arguments, and the function itself off the stack, and
pushes the return value.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Keyword arguments are packed in a tuple instead of a dictionary,
*argc* indicates the total number of arguments
.. opcode:: CALL_FUNCTION_EX (flags)
Calls a function. The lowest bit of *flags* indicates whether the
var-keyword argument is placed at the top of the stack. Below the
var-keyword argument, the var-positional argument is on the stack.
Below the arguments, the function object to call is placed.
Pops all function arguments, and the function itself off the stack, and
pushes the return value. Note that this opcode pops at most three items
from the stack. Var-positional and var-keyword arguments are packed
by :opcode:`BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL` and
:opcode:`BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL`.
.. versionadded:: 3.6
.. opcode:: MAKE_FUNCTION (argc)
Pushes a new function object on the stack. From bottom to top, the consumed
stack must consist of values if the argument carries a specified flag value
* ``0x01`` a tuple of default argument objects in positional order
* ``0x02`` a dictionary of keyword-only parameters' default values
* ``0x04`` an annotation dictionary
* ``0x08`` a tuple containing cells for free variables, making a closure
* the code associated with the function (at TOS1)
* the :term:`qualified name` of the function (at TOS)
.. opcode:: BUILD_SLICE (argc)
.. index:: builtin: slice
Pushes a slice object on the stack. *argc* must be 2 or 3. If it is 2,
``slice(TOS1, TOS)`` is pushed; if it is 3, ``slice(TOS2, TOS1, TOS)`` is
pushed. See the :func:`slice` built-in function for more information.
.. opcode:: EXTENDED_ARG (ext)
Prefixes any opcode which has an argument too big to fit into the default two
bytes. *ext* holds two additional bytes which, taken together with the
subsequent opcode's argument, comprise a four-byte argument, *ext* being the
two most-significant bytes.
.. opcode:: FORMAT_VALUE (flags)
Used for implementing formatted literal strings (f-strings). Pops
an optional *fmt_spec* from the stack, then a required *value*.
*flags* is interpreted as follows:
* ``(flags & 0x03) == 0x00``: *value* is formatted as-is.
* ``(flags & 0x03) == 0x01``: call :func:`str` on *value* before
formatting it.
* ``(flags & 0x03) == 0x02``: call :func:`repr` on *value* before
formatting it.
* ``(flags & 0x03) == 0x03``: call :func:`ascii` on *value* before
formatting it.
* ``(flags & 0x04) == 0x04``: pop *fmt_spec* from the stack and use
it, else use an empty *fmt_spec*.
Formatting is performed using :c:func:`PyObject_Format`. The
result is pushed on the stack.
.. versionadded:: 3.6
.. opcode:: HAVE_ARGUMENT
This is not really an opcode. It identifies the dividing line between
opcodes which don't use their argument and those that do
(``< HAVE_ARGUMENT`` and ``>= HAVE_ARGUMENT``, respectively).
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Now every instruction has an argument, but opcodes ``< HAVE_ARGUMENT``
ignore it. Before, only opcodes ``>= HAVE_ARGUMENT`` had an argument.
.. _opcode_collections:
Opcode collections
------------------
These collections are provided for automatic introspection of bytecode
instructions:
.. data:: opname
Sequence of operation names, indexable using the bytecode.
.. data:: opmap
Dictionary mapping operation names to bytecodes.
.. data:: cmp_op
Sequence of all compare operation names.
.. data:: hasconst
Sequence of bytecodes that have a constant parameter.
.. data:: hasfree
Sequence of bytecodes that access a free variable (note that 'free' in this
context refers to names in the current scope that are referenced by inner
scopes or names in outer scopes that are referenced from this scope. It does
*not* include references to global or builtin scopes).
.. data:: hasname
Sequence of bytecodes that access an attribute by name.
.. data:: hasjrel
Sequence of bytecodes that have a relative jump target.
.. data:: hasjabs
Sequence of bytecodes that have an absolute jump target.
.. data:: haslocal
Sequence of bytecodes that access a local variable.
.. data:: hascompare
Sequence of bytecodes of Boolean operations.
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