.. _2to3-reference: 2to3 - Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation =============================================== .. sectionauthor:: Benjamin Peterson 2to3 is a Python program that reads Python 2.x source code and applies a series of *fixers* to transform it into valid Python 3.x code. The standard library contains a rich set of fixers that will handle almost all code. 2to3 supporting library :mod:`lib2to3` is, however, a flexible and generic library, so it is possible to write your own fixers for 2to3. :mod:`lib2to3` could also be adapted to custom applications in which Python code needs to be edited automatically. .. _2to3-using: Using 2to3 ---------- 2to3 will usually be installed with the Python interpreter as a script. It is also located in the :file:`Tools/scripts` directory of the Python root. 2to3's basic arguments are a list of files or directories to transform. The directories are to recursively traversed for Python sources. Here is a sample Python 2.x source file, :file:`example.py`:: def greet(name): print "Hello, {0}!".format(name) print "What's your name?" name = raw_input() greet(name) It can be converted to Python 3.x code via 2to3 on the command line:: $ 2to3 example.py A diff against the original source file is printed. 2to3 can also write the needed modifications right back to the source file. (A backup of the original file is made unless :option:`-n` is also given.) Writing the changes back is enabled with the :option:`-w` flag:: $ 2to3 -w example.py After transformation, :file:`example.py` looks like this:: def greet(name): print("Hello, {0}!".format(name)) print("What's your name?") name = input() greet(name) Comments and exact indentation are preserved throughout the translation process. By default, 2to3 runs a set of :ref:`predefined fixers <2to3-fixers>`. The :option:`-l` flag lists all available fixers. An explicit set of fixers to run can be given with :option:`-f`. Likewise the :option:`-x` explicitly disables a fixer. The following example runs only the ``imports`` and ``has_key`` fixers:: $ 2to3 -f imports -f has_key example.py This command runs every fixer except the ``apply`` fixer:: $ 2to3 -x apply example.py Some fixers are *explicit*, meaning they aren't run by default and must be listed on the command line to be run. Here, in addition to the default fixers, the ``idioms`` fixer is run:: $ 2to3 -f all -f idioms example.py Notice how passing ``all`` enables all default fixers. Sometimes 2to3 will find a place in your source code that needs to be changed, but 2to3 cannot fix automatically. In this case, 2to3 will print a warning beneath the diff for a file. You should address the warning in order to have compliant 3.x code. 2to3 can also refactor doctests. To enable this mode, use the :option:`-d` flag. Note that *only* doctests will be refactored. This also doesn't require the module to be valid Python. For example, doctest like examples in a reST document could also be refactored with this option. The :option:`-v` option enables output of more information on the translation process. .. _2to3-fixers: Fixers ------ Each step of transforming code is encapsulated in a fixer. The command ``2to3 -l`` lists them. As :ref:`documented above <2to3-using>`, each can be turned on and off individually. They are described here in more detail. .. 2to3fixer:: apply Removes usage of :func:`apply`. For example ``apply(function, *args, **kwargs)`` is converted to ``function(*args, **kwargs)``. .. 2to3fixer:: basestring Converts :class:`basestring` to :class:`str`. .. 2to3fixer:: buffer Converts :class:`buffer` to :class:`memoryview`. This fixer is optional because the :class:`memoryview` API is similar but not exactly the same as that of :class:`buffer`. .. 2to3fixer:: callable Converts ``callable(x)`` to ``hasattr(x, "__call_")``. .. 2to3fixer:: dict Fixes dictionary iteration methods. :meth:`dict.iteritems` is converted to :meth:`dict.items`, :meth:`dict.iterkeys` to :meth:`dict.keys`, and :meth:`dict.itervalues` to :meth:`dict.values`. It also wraps existing usages of :meth:`dict.items`, :meth:`dict.keys`, and :meth:`dict.values` in a call to :class:`list`. .. 2to3fixer:: except Converts ``except X, T`` to ``except X as T``. .. 2to3fixer:: exec Converts the :keyword:`exec` statement to the :func:`exec` function. .. 2to3fixer:: execfile Removes usage of :func:`execfile`. The argument to :func:`execfile` is wrapped in calls to :func:`open`, :func:`compile`, and :func:`exec`. .. 2to3fixer:: filter Wraps :func:`filter` usage in a :class:`list` call. .. 2to3fixer:: funcattrs Fixes function attributes that have been renamed. For example, ``my_function.func_closure`` is converted to ``my_function.__closure__``. .. 2to3fixer:: future Removes ``from __future__ import new_feature`` statements. .. 2to3fixer:: getcwdu Renames :func:`os.getcwdu` to :func:`os.getcwd`. .. 2to3fixer:: has_key Changes ``dict.has_key(key)`` to ``key in dict``. .. 2to3fixer:: idioms This optional fixer performs several transformations that make Python code more idiomatic. Type comparisons like ``type(x) is SomeClass`` and ``type(x) == SomeClass`` are converted to ``isinstance(x, SomeClass)``. ``while 1`` becomes ``while True``. This fixer also tries to make use of :func:`sorted` in appropriate places. For example, this block :: L = list(some_iterable) L.sort() is changed to :: L = sorted(some_iterable) .. 2to3fixer:: import Detects sibling imports and converts them to relative imports. .. 2to3fixer:: imports Handles module renames in the standard library. .. 2to3fixer:: imports2 Handles other modules renames in the standard library. It is separate from the :2to3fixer:`imports` fixer only because of technical limitations. .. 2to3fixer:: input Converts ``input(prompt)`` to ``eval(input(prompt))`` .. 2to3fixer:: intern Converts :func:`intern` to :func:`sys.intern`. .. 2to3fixer:: isinstance Fixes duplicate types in the second argument of :func:`isinstance`. For example, ``isinstance(x, (int, int))`` is converted to ``isinstance(x, (int))``. .. 2to3fixer:: itertools_imports Removes imports of :func:`itertools.ifilter`, :func:`itertools.izip`, and :func:`itertools.imap`. Imports of :func:`itertools.ifilterfalse` are also changed to :func:`itertools.filterfalse`. .. 2to3fixer:: itertools Changes usage of :func:`itertools.ifilter`, :func:`itertools.izip`, and :func:`itertools.imap` to their builtin equivalents. :func:`itertools.ifilterfalse` is changed to :func:`itertools.filterfalse`. .. 2to3fixer:: long Strips the ``L`` prefix on long literals and renames :class:`long` to :class:`int`. .. 2to3fixer:: map Wraps :func:`map` in a :class:`list` call. It also changes ``map(None, x)`` to ``list(x)``. Using ``from future_builtins import map`` disables this fixer. .. 2to3fixer:: metaclass Converts the old metaclass syntax (``__metaclass__ = Meta`` in the class body) to the new (``class X(metaclass=Meta)``). .. 2to3fixer:: methodattrs Fixes old method attribute names. For example, ``meth.im_func`` is converted to ``meth.__func__``. .. 2to3fixer:: ne Converts the old not-equal syntax, ``<>``, to ``!=``. .. 2to3fixer:: next Converts the use of iterator's :meth:`next` methods to the :func:`next` function. It also renames :meth:`next` methods to :meth:`~object.__next__`. .. 2to3fixer:: nonzero Renames :meth:`~object.__nonzero__` to :meth:`~object.__bool__`. .. 2to3fixer:: numliterals Converts octal literals into the new syntax. .. 2to3fixer:: paren Add extra parenthesis where they are required in list comprehensions. For example, ``[x for x in 1, 2]`` becomes ``[x for x in (1, 2)]``. .. 2to3fixer:: print Converts the :keyword:`print` statement to the :func:`print` function. .. 2to3fixer:: raises Converts ``raise E, V`` to ``raise E(V)``, and ``raise E, V, T`` to ``raise E(V).with_traceback(T)``. If ``E`` is a tuple, the translation will be incorrect because substituting tuples for exceptions has been removed in 3.0. .. 2to3fixer:: raw_input Converts :func:`raw_input` to :func:`input`. .. 2to3fixer:: reduce Handles the move of :func:`reduce` to :func:`functools.reduce`. .. 2to3fixer:: renames Changes :data:`sys.maxint` to :data:`sys.maxsize`. .. 2to3fixer:: repr Replaces backtick repr with the :func:`repr` function. .. 2to3fixer:: set_literal Replaces use of the :class:`set` constructor with set literals. This fixer is optional. .. 2to3fixer:: standard_error Renames :exc:`StandardError` to :exc:`Exception`. .. 2to3fixer:: sys_exc Changes the deprecated :data:`sys.exc_value`, :data:`sys.exc_type`, :data:`sys.exc_traceback` to use :func:`sys.exc_info`. .. 2to3fixer:: throw Fixes the API change in generator's :meth:`throw` method. .. 2to3fixer:: tuple_params Removes implicit tuple parameter unpacking. This fixer inserts temporary variables. .. 2to3fixer:: types Fixes code broken from the removal of some members in the :mod:`types` module. .. 2to3fixer:: unicode Renames :class:`unicode` to :class:`str`. .. 2to3fixer:: urllib Handles the rename of :mod:`urllib` and :mod:`urllib2` to the :mod:`urllib` package. .. 2to3fixer:: ws_comma Removes excess whitespace from comma separated items. This fixer is optional. .. 2to3fixer:: xrange Renames :func:`xrange` to :func:`range` and wraps existing :func:`range` calls with :class:`list`. .. 2to3fixer:: xreadlines Changes ``for x in file.xreadlines()`` to ``for x in file``. .. 2to3fixer:: zip Wraps :func:`zip` usage in a :class:`list` call. This is disabled when ``from future_builtins import zip`` appears. :mod:`lib2to3` - 2to3's library ------------------------------- .. module:: lib2to3 :synopsis: the 2to3 library .. moduleauthor:: Guido van Rossum .. moduleauthor:: Collin Winter .. moduleauthor:: Benjamin Peterson .. note:: The :mod:`lib2to3` API should be considered unstable and may change drastically in the future. .. XXX What is the public interface anyway?