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.. _built-in-funcs:
Built-in Functions
==================
The Python interpreter has a number of functions built into it that are always
available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
.. function:: abs(x)
Return the absolute value of a number. The argument may be a plain or long
integer or a floating point number. If the argument is a complex number, its
magnitude is returned.
.. function:: all(iterable)
Return True if all elements of the *iterable* are true (or if the iterable
is empty). Equivalent to::
def all(iterable):
for element in iterable:
if not element:
return False
return True
.. versionadded:: 2.5
.. function:: any(iterable)
Return True if any element of the *iterable* is true. If the iterable
is empty, return False. Equivalent to::
def any(iterable):
for element in iterable:
if element:
return True
return False
.. versionadded:: 2.5
.. function:: basestring()
This abstract type is the superclass for :class:`str` and :class:`unicode`. It
cannot be called or instantiated, but it can be used to test whether an object
is an instance of :class:`str` or :class:`unicode`. ``isinstance(obj,
basestring)`` is equivalent to ``isinstance(obj, (str, unicode))``.
.. versionadded:: 2.3
.. function:: bin(x)
Convert an integer number to a binary string. The result is a valid Python
expression. If *x* is not a Python :class:`int` object, it has to define an
:meth:`__index__` method that returns an integer.
.. versionadded:: 2.6
.. function:: bool([x])
Convert a value to a Boolean, using the standard truth testing procedure. If
*x* is false or omitted, this returns :const:`False`; otherwise it returns
:const:`True`. :class:`bool` is also a class, which is a subclass of
:class:`int`. Class :class:`bool` cannot be subclassed further. Its only
instances are :const:`False` and :const:`True`.
.. index:: pair: Boolean; type
.. versionadded:: 2.2.1
.. versionchanged:: 2.3
If no argument is given, this function returns :const:`False`.
.. function:: callable(object)
Return :const:`True` if the *object* argument appears callable,
:const:`False` if not. If this
returns true, it is still possible that a call fails, but if it is false,
calling *object* will never succeed. Note that classes are callable (calling a
class returns a new instance); class instances are callable if they have a
:meth:`__call__` method.
.. function:: chr(i)
Return a string of one character whose ASCII code is the integer *i*. For
example, ``chr(97)`` returns the string ``'a'``. This is the inverse of
:func:`ord`. The argument must be in the range [0..255], inclusive;
:exc:`ValueError` will be raised if *i* is outside that range. See
also :func:`unichr`.
.. function:: classmethod(function)
Return a class method for *function*.
A class method receives the class as implicit first argument, just like an
instance method receives the instance. To declare a class method, use this
idiom::
class C:
@classmethod
def f(cls, arg1, arg2, ...): ...
The ``@classmethod`` form is a function :term:`decorator` -- see the description
of function definitions in :ref:`function` for details.
It can be called either on the class (such as ``C.f()``) or on an instance (such
as ``C().f()``). The instance is ignored except for its class. If a class
method is called for a derived class, the derived class object is passed as the
implied first argument.
Class methods are different than C++ or Java static methods. If you want those,
see :func:`staticmethod` in this section.
For more information on class methods, consult the documentation on the standard
type hierarchy in :ref:`types`.
.. versionadded:: 2.2
.. versionchanged:: 2.4
Function decorator syntax added.
.. function:: cmp(x, y)
Compare the two objects *x* and *y* and return an integer according to the
outcome. The return value is negative if ``x < y``, zero if ``x == y`` and
strictly positive if ``x > y``.
.. function:: compile(source, filename, mode[, flags[, dont_inherit]])
Compile the *source* into a code or AST object. Code objects can be executed
by an :keyword:`exec` statement or evaluated by a call to :func:`eval`.
*source* can either be a string or an AST object. Refer to the :mod:`ast`
module documentation for information on how to work with AST objects.
The *filename* argument should give the file from which the code was read;
pass some recognizable value if it wasn't read from a file (``'<string>'`` is
commonly used).
The *mode* argument specifies what kind of code must be compiled; it can be
``'exec'`` if *source* consists of a sequence of statements, ``'eval'`` if it
consists of a single expression, or ``'single'`` if it consists of a single
interactive statement (in the latter case, expression statements that
evaluate to something other than ``None`` will be printed).
The optional arguments *flags* and *dont_inherit* control which future
statements (see :pep:`236`) affect the compilation of *source*. If neither
is present (or both are zero) the code is compiled with those future
statements that are in effect in the code that is calling compile. If the
*flags* argument is given and *dont_inherit* is not (or is zero) then the
future statements specified by the *flags* argument are used in addition to
those that would be used anyway. If *dont_inherit* is a non-zero integer then
the *flags* argument is it -- the future statements in effect around the call
to compile are ignored.
Future statements are specified by bits which can be bitwise ORed together to
specify multiple statements. The bitfield required to specify a given feature
can be found as the :attr:`compiler_flag` attribute on the :class:`_Feature`
instance in the :mod:`__future__` module.
This function raises :exc:`SyntaxError` if the compiled source is invalid,
and :exc:`TypeError` if the source contains null bytes.
.. note::
When compiling a string with multi-line code, line endings must be
represented by a single newline character (``'\n'``), and the input must
be terminated by at least one newline character. If line endings are
represented by ``'\r\n'``, use :meth:`str.replace` to change them into
``'\n'``.
.. versionchanged:: 2.3
The *flags* and *dont_inherit* arguments were added.
.. versionchanged:: 2.6
Support for compiling AST objects.
.. function:: complex([real[, imag]])
Create a complex number with the value *real* + *imag*\*j or convert a string or
number to a complex number. If the first parameter is a string, it will be
interpreted as a complex number and the function must be called without a second
parameter. The second parameter can never be a string. Each argument may be any
numeric type (including complex). If *imag* is omitted, it defaults to zero and
the function serves as a numeric conversion function like :func:`int`,
:func:`long` and :func:`float`. If both arguments are omitted, returns ``0j``.
The complex type is described in :ref:`typesnumeric`.
.. function:: delattr(object, name)
This is a relative of :func:`setattr`. The arguments are an object and a
string. The string must be the name of one of the object's attributes. The
function deletes the named attribute, provided the object allows it. For
example, ``delattr(x, 'foobar')`` is equivalent to ``del x.foobar``.
.. function:: dict([arg])
:noindex:
Create a new data dictionary, optionally with items taken from *arg*.
The dictionary type is described in :ref:`typesmapping`.
For other containers see the built in :class:`list`, :class:`set`, and
:class:`tuple` classes, and the :mod:`collections` module.
.. function:: dir([object])
Without arguments, return the list of names in the current local scope. With an
argument, attempt to return a list of valid attributes for that object.
If the object has a method named :meth:`__dir__`, this method will be called and
must return the list of attributes. This allows objects that implement a custom
:func:`__getattr__` or :func:`__getattribute__` function to customize the way
:func:`dir` reports their attributes.
If the object does not provide :meth:`__dir__`, the function tries its best to
gather information from the object's :attr:`__dict__` attribute, if defined, and
from its type object. The resulting list is not necessarily complete, and may
be inaccurate when the object has a custom :func:`__getattr__`.
The default :func:`dir` mechanism behaves differently with different types of
objects, as it attempts to produce the most relevant, rather than complete,
information:
* If the object is a module object, the list contains the names of the module's
attributes.
* If the object is a type or class object, the list contains the names of its
attributes, and recursively of the attributes of its bases.
* Otherwise, the list contains the object's attributes' names, the names of its
class's attributes, and recursively of the attributes of its class's base
classes.
The resulting list is sorted alphabetically. For example:
>>> import struct
>>> dir() # doctest: +SKIP
['__builtins__', '__doc__', '__name__', 'struct']
>>> dir(struct) # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
['Struct', '__builtins__', '__doc__', '__file__', '__name__',
'__package__', '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
'unpack', 'unpack_from']
>>> class Foo(object):
... def __dir__(self):
... return ["kan", "ga", "roo"]
...
>>> f = Foo()
>>> dir(f)
['ga', 'kan', 'roo']
.. note::
Because :func:`dir` is supplied primarily as a convenience for use at an
interactive prompt, it tries to supply an interesting set of names more than it
tries to supply a rigorously or consistently defined set of names, and its
detailed behavior may change across releases. For example, metaclass attributes
are not in the result list when the argument is a class.
.. function:: divmod(a, b)
Take two (non complex) numbers as arguments and return a pair of numbers
consisting of their quotient and remainder when using long division. With mixed
operand types, the rules for binary arithmetic operators apply. For plain and
long integers, the result is the same as ``(a // b, a % b)``. For floating point
numbers the result is ``(q, a % b)``, where *q* is usually ``math.floor(a / b)``
but may be 1 less than that. In any case ``q * b + a % b`` is very close to
*a*, if ``a % b`` is non-zero it has the same sign as *b*, and ``0 <= abs(a % b)
< abs(b)``.
.. versionchanged:: 2.3
Using :func:`divmod` with complex numbers is deprecated.
.. function:: enumerate(sequence[, start=0])
Return an enumerate object. *sequence* must be a sequence, an
:term:`iterator`, or some other object which supports iteration. The
:meth:`!next` method of the iterator returned by :func:`enumerate` returns a
tuple containing a count (from *start* which defaults to 0) and the
corresponding value obtained from iterating over *iterable*.
:func:`enumerate` is useful for obtaining an indexed series: ``(0, seq[0])``,
``(1, seq[1])``, ``(2, seq[2])``, .... For example:
>>> for i, season in enumerate(['Spring', 'Summer', 'Fall', 'Winter']):
... print i, season
0 Spring
1 Summer
2 Fall
3 Winter
.. versionadded:: 2.3
.. versionadded:: 2.6
The *start* parameter.
.. function:: eval(expression[, globals[, locals]])
The arguments are a string and optional globals and locals. If provided,
*globals* must be a dictionary. If provided, *locals* can be any mapping
object.
.. versionchanged:: 2.4
formerly *locals* was required to be a dictionary.
The *expression* argument is parsed and evaluated as a Python expression
(technically speaking, a condition list) using the *globals* and *locals*
dictionaries as global and local namespace. If the *globals* dictionary is
present and lacks '__builtins__', the current globals are copied into *globals*
before *expression* is parsed. This means that *expression* normally has full
access to the standard :mod:`__builtin__` module and restricted environments are
propagated. If the *locals* dictionary is omitted it defaults to the *globals*
dictionary. If both dictionaries are omitted, the expression is executed in the
environment where :func:`eval` is called. The return value is the result of
the evaluated expression. Syntax errors are reported as exceptions. Example:
>>> x = 1
>>> print eval('x+1')
2
This function can also be used to execute arbitrary code objects (such as
those created by :func:`compile`). In this case pass a code object instead
of a string. If the code object has been compiled with ``'exec'`` as the
*mode* argument, :func:`eval`\'s return value will be ``None``.
Hints: dynamic execution of statements is supported by the :keyword:`exec`
statement. Execution of statements from a file is supported by the
:func:`execfile` function. The :func:`globals` and :func:`locals` functions
returns the current global and local dictionary, respectively, which may be
useful to pass around for use by :func:`eval` or :func:`execfile`.
.. function:: execfile(filename[, globals[, locals]])
This function is similar to the :keyword:`exec` statement, but parses a file
instead of a string. It is different from the :keyword:`import` statement in
that it does not use the module administration --- it reads the file
unconditionally and does not create a new module. [#]_
The arguments are a file name and two optional dictionaries. The file is parsed
and evaluated as a sequence of Python statements (similarly to a module) using
the *globals* and *locals* dictionaries as global and local namespace. If
provided, *locals* can be any mapping object.
.. versionchanged:: 2.4
formerly *locals* was required to be a dictionary.
If the *locals* dictionary is omitted it defaults to the *globals* dictionary.
If both dictionaries are omitted, the expression is executed in the environment
where :func:`execfile` is called. The return value is ``None``.
.. note::
The default *locals* act as described for function :func:`locals` below:
modifications to the default *locals* dictionary should not be attempted. Pass
an explicit *locals* dictionary if you need to see effects of the code on
*locals* after function :func:`execfile` returns. :func:`execfile` cannot be
used reliably to modify a function's locals.
.. function:: file(filename[, mode[, bufsize]])
Constructor function for the :class:`file` type, described further in section
:ref:`bltin-file-objects`. The constructor's arguments are the same as those
of the :func:`open` built-in function described below.
When opening a file, it's preferable to use :func:`open` instead of invoking
this constructor directly. :class:`file` is more suited to type testing (for
example, writing ``isinstance(f, file)``).
.. versionadded:: 2.2
.. function:: filter(function, iterable)
Construct a list from those elements of *iterable* for which *function* returns
true. *iterable* may be either a sequence, a container which supports
iteration, or an iterator. If *iterable* is a string or a tuple, the result
also has that type; otherwise it is always a list. If *function* is ``None``,
the identity function is assumed, that is, all elements of *iterable* that are
false are removed.
Note that ``filter(function, iterable)`` is equivalent to ``[item for item in
iterable if function(item)]`` if function is not ``None`` and ``[item for item
in iterable if item]`` if function is ``None``.
See :func:`itertools.ifilterfalse` for the complementary function that returns
elements of *iterable* for which *function* returns false.
.. function:: float([x])
Convert a string or a number to floating point. If the argument is a string, it
must contain a possibly signed decimal or floating point number, possibly
embedded in whitespace. The argument may also be [+|-]nan or [+|-]inf.
Otherwise, the argument may be a plain or long integer
or a floating point number, and a floating point number with the same value
(within Python's floating point precision) is returned. If no argument is
given, returns ``0.0``.
.. note::
.. index::
single: NaN
single: Infinity
When passing in a string, values for NaN and Infinity may be returned, depending
on the underlying C library. Float accepts the strings nan, inf and -inf for
NaN and positive or negative infinity. The case and a leading + are ignored as
well as a leading - is ignored for NaN. Float always represents NaN and infinity
as nan, inf or -inf.
The float type is described in :ref:`typesnumeric`.
.. function:: format(value[, format_spec])
.. index::
pair: str; format
single: __format__
Convert a *value* to a "formatted" representation, as controlled by
*format_spec*. The interpretation of *format_spec* will depend on the type
of the *value* argument, however there is a standard formatting syntax that
is used by most built-in types: :ref:`formatspec`.
.. note::
``format(value, format_spec)`` merely calls
``value.__format__(format_spec)``.
.. versionadded:: 2.6
.. function:: frozenset([iterable])
:noindex:
Return a frozenset object, optionally with elements taken from *iterable*.
The frozenset type is described in :ref:`types-set`.
For other containers see the built in :class:`dict`, :class:`list`, and
:class:`tuple` classes, and the :mod:`collections` module.
.. versionadded:: 2.4
.. function:: getattr(object, name[, default])
Return the value of the named attributed of *object*. *name* must be a string.
If the string is the name of one of the object's attributes, the result is the
value of that attribute. For example, ``getattr(x, 'foobar')`` is equivalent to
``x.foobar``. If the named attribute does not exist, *default* is returned if
provided, otherwise :exc:`AttributeError` is raised.
.. function:: globals()
Return a dictionary representing the current global symbol table. This is always
the dictionary of the current module (inside a function or method, this is the
module where it is defined, not the module from which it is called).
.. function:: hasattr(object, name)
The arguments are an object and a string. The result is ``True`` if the string
is the name of one of the object's attributes, ``False`` if not. (This is
implemented by calling ``getattr(object, name)`` and seeing whether it raises an
exception or not.)
.. function:: hash(object)
Return the hash value of the object (if it has one). Hash values are integers.
They are used to quickly compare dictionary keys during a dictionary lookup.
Numeric values that compare equal have the same hash value (even if they are of
different types, as is the case for 1 and 1.0).
.. function:: help([object])
Invoke the built-in help system. (This function is intended for interactive
use.) If no argument is given, the interactive help system starts on the
interpreter console. If the argument is a string, then the string is looked up
as the name of a module, function, class, method, keyword, or documentation
topic, and a help page is printed on the console. If the argument is any other
kind of object, a help page on the object is generated.
This function is added to the built-in namespace by the :mod:`site` module.
.. versionadded:: 2.2
.. function:: hex(x)
Convert an integer number (of any size) to a hexadecimal string. The result is a
valid Python expression.
.. note::
To obtain a hexadecimal string representation for a float, use the
:meth:`float.hex` method.
.. versionchanged:: 2.4
Formerly only returned an unsigned literal.
.. function:: id(object)
Return the "identity" of an object. This is an integer (or long integer) which
is guaranteed to be unique and constant for this object during its lifetime.
Two objects with non-overlapping lifetimes may have the same :func:`id`
value.
.. impl-detail:: This is the address of the object.
.. function:: input([prompt])
Equivalent to ``eval(raw_input(prompt))``.
.. warning::
This function is not safe from user errors! It expects a valid Python
expression as input; if the input is not syntactically valid, a
:exc:`SyntaxError` will be raised. Other exceptions may be raised if there is an
error during evaluation. (On the other hand, sometimes this is exactly what you
need when writing a quick script for expert use.)
If the :mod:`readline` module was loaded, then :func:`input` will use it to
provide elaborate line editing and history features.
Consider using the :func:`raw_input` function for general input from users.
.. function:: int([x[, base]])
Convert a string or number to a plain integer. If the argument is a string,
it must contain a possibly signed decimal number representable as a Python
integer, possibly embedded in whitespace. The *base* parameter gives the
base for the conversion (which is 10 by default) and may be any integer in
the range [2, 36], or zero. If *base* is zero, the proper radix is
determined based on the contents of string; the interpretation is the same as
for integer literals. (See :ref:`numbers`.) If *base* is specified and *x*
is not a string, :exc:`TypeError` is raised. Otherwise, the argument may be a
plain or long integer or a floating point number. Conversion of floating
point numbers to integers truncates (towards zero). If the argument is
outside the integer range a long object will be returned instead. If no
arguments are given, returns ``0``.
The integer type is described in :ref:`typesnumeric`.
.. function:: isinstance(object, classinfo)
Return true if the *object* argument is an instance of the *classinfo* argument,
or of a (direct or indirect) subclass thereof. Also return true if *classinfo*
is a type object (new-style class) and *object* is an object of that type or of
a (direct or indirect) subclass thereof. If *object* is not a class instance or
an object of the given type, the function always returns false. If *classinfo*
is neither a class object nor a type object, it may be a tuple of class or type
objects, or may recursively contain other such tuples (other sequence types are
not accepted). If *classinfo* is not a class, type, or tuple of classes, types,
and such tuples, a :exc:`TypeError` exception is raised.
.. versionchanged:: 2.2
Support for a tuple of type information was added.
.. function:: issubclass(class, classinfo)
Return true if *class* is a subclass (direct or indirect) of *classinfo*. A
class is considered a subclass of itself. *classinfo* may be a tuple of class
objects, in which case every entry in *classinfo* will be checked. In any other
case, a :exc:`TypeError` exception is raised.
.. versionchanged:: 2.3
Support for a tuple of type information was added.
.. function:: iter(o[, sentinel])
Return an :term:`iterator` object. The first argument is interpreted very differently
depending on the presence of the second argument. Without a second argument, *o*
must be a collection object which supports the iteration protocol (the
:meth:`__iter__` method), or it must support the sequence protocol (the
:meth:`__getitem__` method with integer arguments starting at ``0``). If it
does not support either of those protocols, :exc:`TypeError` is raised. If the
second argument, *sentinel*, is given, then *o* must be a callable object. The
iterator created in this case will call *o* with no arguments for each call to
its :meth:`~iterator.next` method; if the value returned is equal to *sentinel*,
:exc:`StopIteration` will be raised, otherwise the value will be returned.
One useful application of the second form of :func:`iter` is to read lines of
a file until a certain line is reached. The following example reads a file
until ``"STOP"`` is reached: ::
with open("mydata.txt") as fp:
for line in iter(fp.readline, "STOP"):
process_line(line)
.. versionadded:: 2.2
.. function:: len(s)
Return the length (the number of items) of an object. The argument may be a
sequence (string, tuple or list) or a mapping (dictionary).
.. function:: list([iterable])
Return a list whose items are the same and in the same order as *iterable*'s
items. *iterable* may be either a sequence, a container that supports
iteration, or an iterator object. If *iterable* is already a list, a copy is
made and returned, similar to ``iterable[:]``. For instance, ``list('abc')``
returns ``['a', 'b', 'c']`` and ``list( (1, 2, 3) )`` returns ``[1, 2, 3]``. If
no argument is given, returns a new empty list, ``[]``.
:class:`list` is a mutable sequence type, as documented in
:ref:`typesseq`. For other containers see the built in :class:`dict`,
:class:`set`, and :class:`tuple` classes, and the :mod:`collections` module.
.. function:: locals()
Update and return a dictionary representing the current local symbol table.
Free variables are returned by :func:`locals` when it is called in function
blocks, but not in class blocks.
.. note::
The contents of this dictionary should not be modified; changes may not
affect the values of local and free variables used by the interpreter.
.. function:: long([x[, base]])
Convert a string or number to a long integer. If the argument is a string, it
must contain a possibly signed number of arbitrary size, possibly embedded in
whitespace. The *base* argument is interpreted in the same way as for
:func:`int`, and may only be given when *x* is a string. Otherwise, the argument
may be a plain or long integer or a floating point number, and a long integer
with the same value is returned. Conversion of floating point numbers to
integers truncates (towards zero). If no arguments are given, returns ``0L``.
The long type is described in :ref:`typesnumeric`.
.. function:: map(function, iterable, ...)
Apply *function* to every item of *iterable* and return a list of the results.
If additional *iterable* arguments are passed, *function* must take that many
arguments and is applied to the items from all iterables in parallel. If one
iterable is shorter than another it is assumed to be extended with ``None``
items. If *function* is ``None``, the identity function is assumed; if there
are multiple arguments, :func:`map` returns a list consisting of tuples
containing the corresponding items from all iterables (a kind of transpose
operation). The *iterable* arguments may be a sequence or any iterable object;
the result is always a list.
.. function:: max(iterable[, args...][key])
With a single argument *iterable*, return the largest item of a non-empty
iterable (such as a string, tuple or list). With more than one argument, return
the largest of the arguments.
The optional *key* argument specifies a one-argument ordering function like that
used for :meth:`list.sort`. The *key* argument, if supplied, must be in keyword
form (for example, ``max(a,b,c,key=func)``).
.. versionchanged:: 2.5
Added support for the optional *key* argument.
.. function:: min(iterable[, args...][key])
With a single argument *iterable*, return the smallest item of a non-empty
iterable (such as a string, tuple or list). With more than one argument, return
the smallest of the arguments.
The optional *key* argument specifies a one-argument ordering function like that
used for :meth:`list.sort`. The *key* argument, if supplied, must be in keyword
form (for example, ``min(a,b,c,key=func)``).
.. versionchanged:: 2.5
Added support for the optional *key* argument.
.. function:: next(iterator[, default])
Retrieve the next item from the *iterator* by calling its
:meth:`~iterator.next` method. If *default* is given, it is returned if the
iterator is exhausted, otherwise :exc:`StopIteration` is raised.
.. versionadded:: 2.6
.. function:: object()
Return a new featureless object. :class:`object` is a base for all new style
classes. It has the methods that are common to all instances of new style
classes.
.. versionadded:: 2.2
.. versionchanged:: 2.3
This function does not accept any arguments. Formerly, it accepted arguments but
ignored them.
.. function:: oct(x)
Convert an integer number (of any size) to an octal string. The result is a
valid Python expression.
.. versionchanged:: 2.4
Formerly only returned an unsigned literal.
.. function:: open(filename[, mode[, bufsize]])
Open a file, returning an object of the :class:`file` type described in
section :ref:`bltin-file-objects`. If the file cannot be opened,
:exc:`IOError` is raised. When opening a file, it's preferable to use
:func:`open` instead of invoking the :class:`file` constructor directly.
The first two arguments are the same as for ``stdio``'s :cfunc:`fopen`:
*filename* is the file name to be opened, and *mode* is a string indicating how
the file is to be opened.
The most commonly-used values of *mode* are ``'r'`` for reading, ``'w'`` for
writing (truncating the file if it already exists), and ``'a'`` for appending
(which on *some* Unix systems means that *all* writes append to the end of the
file regardless of the current seek position). If *mode* is omitted, it
defaults to ``'r'``. The default is to use text mode, which may convert
``'\n'`` characters to a platform-specific representation on writing and back
on reading. Thus, when opening a binary file, you should append ``'b'`` to
the *mode* value to open the file in binary mode, which will improve
portability. (Appending ``'b'`` is useful even on systems that don't treat
binary and text files differently, where it serves as documentation.) See below
for more possible values of *mode*.
.. index::
single: line-buffered I/O
single: unbuffered I/O
single: buffer size, I/O
single: I/O control; buffering
The optional *bufsize* argument specifies the file's desired buffer size: 0
means unbuffered, 1 means line buffered, any other positive value means use a
buffer of (approximately) that size. A negative *bufsize* means to use the
system default, which is usually line buffered for tty devices and fully
buffered for other files. If omitted, the system default is used. [#]_
Modes ``'r+'``, ``'w+'`` and ``'a+'`` open the file for updating (note that
``'w+'`` truncates the file). Append ``'b'`` to the mode to open the file in
binary mode, on systems that differentiate between binary and text files; on
systems that don't have this distinction, adding the ``'b'`` has no effect.
In addition to the standard :cfunc:`fopen` values *mode* may be ``'U'`` or
``'rU'``. Python is usually built with universal newline support; supplying
``'U'`` opens the file as a text file, but lines may be terminated by any of the
following: the Unix end-of-line convention ``'\n'``, the Macintosh convention
``'\r'``, or the Windows convention ``'\r\n'``. All of these external
representations are seen as ``'\n'`` by the Python program. If Python is built
without universal newline support a *mode* with ``'U'`` is the same as normal
text mode. Note that file objects so opened also have an attribute called
:attr:`newlines` which has a value of ``None`` (if no newlines have yet been
seen), ``'\n'``, ``'\r'``, ``'\r\n'``, or a tuple containing all the newline
types seen.
Python enforces that the mode, after stripping ``'U'``, begins with ``'r'``,
``'w'`` or ``'a'``.
Python provides many file handling modules including
:mod:`fileinput`, :mod:`os`, :mod:`os.path`, :mod:`tempfile`, and
:mod:`shutil`.
.. versionchanged:: 2.5
Restriction on first letter of mode string introduced.
.. function:: ord(c)
Given a string of length one, return an integer representing the Unicode code
point of the character when the argument is a unicode object, or the value of
the byte when the argument is an 8-bit string. For example, ``ord('a')`` returns
the integer ``97``, ``ord(u'\u2020')`` returns ``8224``. This is the inverse of
:func:`chr` for 8-bit strings and of :func:`unichr` for unicode objects. If a
unicode argument is given and Python was built with UCS2 Unicode, then the
character's code point must be in the range [0..65535] inclusive; otherwise the
string length is two, and a :exc:`TypeError` will be raised.
.. function:: pow(x, y[, z])
Return *x* to the power *y*; if *z* is present, return *x* to the power *y*,
modulo *z* (computed more efficiently than ``pow(x, y) % z``). The two-argument
form ``pow(x, y)`` is equivalent to using the power operator: ``x**y``.
The arguments must have numeric types. With mixed operand types, the coercion
rules for binary arithmetic operators apply. For int and long int operands, the
result has the same type as the operands (after coercion) unless the second
argument is negative; in that case, all arguments are converted to float and a
float result is delivered. For example, ``10**2`` returns ``100``, but
``10**-2`` returns ``0.01``. (This last feature was added in Python 2.2. In
Python 2.1 and before, if both arguments were of integer types and the second
argument was negative, an exception was raised.) If the second argument is
negative, the third argument must be omitted. If *z* is present, *x* and *y*
must be of integer types, and *y* must be non-negative. (This restriction was
added in Python 2.2. In Python 2.1 and before, floating 3-argument ``pow()``
returned platform-dependent results depending on floating-point rounding
accidents.)
.. function:: print([object, ...][, sep=' '][, end='\\n'][, file=sys.stdout])
Print *object*\(s) to the stream *file*, separated by *sep* and followed by
*end*. *sep*, *end* and *file*, if present, must be given as keyword
arguments.
All non-keyword arguments are converted to strings like :func:`str` does and
written to the stream, separated by *sep* and followed by *end*. Both *sep*
and *end* must be strings; they can also be ``None``, which means to use the
default values. If no *object* is given, :func:`print` will just write
*end*.
The *file* argument must be an object with a ``write(string)`` method; if it
is not present or ``None``, :data:`sys.stdout` will be used.
.. note::
This function is not normally available as a built-in since the name
``print`` is recognized as the :keyword:`print` statement. To disable the
statement and use the :func:`print` function, use this future statement at
the top of your module::
from __future__ import print_function
.. versionadded:: 2.6
.. function:: property([fget[, fset[, fdel[, doc]]]])
Return a property attribute for :term:`new-style class`\es (classes that
derive from :class:`object`).
*fget* is a function for getting an attribute value, likewise *fset* is a
function for setting, and *fdel* a function for del'ing, an attribute. Typical
use is to define a managed attribute x::
class C(object):
def __init__(self):
self._x = None
def getx(self):
return self._x
def setx(self, value):
self._x = value
def delx(self):
del self._x
x = property(getx, setx, delx, "I'm the 'x' property.")
If given, *doc* will be the docstring of the property attribute. Otherwise, the
property will copy *fget*'s docstring (if it exists). This makes it possible to
create read-only properties easily using :func:`property` as a :term:`decorator`::
class Parrot(object):
def __init__(self):
self._voltage = 100000
@property
def voltage(self):
"""Get the current voltage."""
return self._voltage
turns the :meth:`voltage` method into a "getter" for a read-only attribute
with the same name.
A property object has :attr:`getter`, :attr:`setter`, and :attr:`deleter`
methods usable as decorators that create a copy of the property with the
corresponding accessor function set to the decorated function. This is
best explained with an example::
class C(object):
def __init__(self):
self._x = None
@property
def x(self):
"""I'm the 'x' property."""
return self._x
@x.setter
def x(self, value):
self._x = value
@x.deleter
def x(self):
del self._x
This code is exactly equivalent to the first example. Be sure to give the
additional functions the same name as the original property (``x`` in this
case.)
The returned property also has the attributes ``fget``, ``fset``, and
``fdel`` corresponding to the constructor arguments.
.. versionadded:: 2.2
.. versionchanged:: 2.5
Use *fget*'s docstring if no *doc* given.
.. versionchanged:: 2.6
The ``getter``, ``setter``, and ``deleter`` attributes were added.
.. function:: range([start,] stop[, step])
This is a versatile function to create lists containing arithmetic progressions.
It is most often used in :keyword:`for` loops. The arguments must be plain
integers. If the *step* argument is omitted, it defaults to ``1``. If the
*start* argument is omitted, it defaults to ``0``. The full form returns a list
of plain integers ``[start, start + step, start + 2 * step, ...]``. If *step*
is positive, the last element is the largest ``start + i * step`` less than
*stop*; if *step* is negative, the last element is the smallest ``start + i *
step`` greater than *stop*. *step* must not be zero (or else :exc:`ValueError`
is raised). Example:
>>> range(10)
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
>>> range(1, 11)
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
>>> range(0, 30, 5)
[0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25]
>>> range(0, 10, 3)
[0, 3, 6, 9]
>>> range(0, -10, -1)
[0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9]
>>> range(0)
[]
>>> range(1, 0)
[]
.. function:: raw_input([prompt])
If the *prompt* argument is present, it is written to standard output without a
trailing newline. The function then reads a line from input, converts it to a
string (stripping a trailing newline), and returns that. When EOF is read,
:exc:`EOFError` is raised. Example::
>>> s = raw_input('--> ')
--> Monty Python's Flying Circus
>>> s
"Monty Python's Flying Circus"
If the :mod:`readline` module was loaded, then :func:`raw_input` will use it to
provide elaborate line editing and history features.
.. function:: reduce(function, iterable[, initializer])
Apply *function* of two arguments cumulatively to the items of *iterable*, from
left to right, so as to reduce the iterable to a single value. For example,
``reduce(lambda x, y: x+y, [1, 2, 3, 4, 5])`` calculates ``((((1+2)+3)+4)+5)``.
The left argument, *x*, is the accumulated value and the right argument, *y*, is
the update value from the *iterable*. If the optional *initializer* is present,
it is placed before the items of the iterable in the calculation, and serves as
a default when the iterable is empty. If *initializer* is not given and
*iterable* contains only one item, the first item is returned.
.. function:: reload(module)
Reload a previously imported *module*. The argument must be a module object, so
it must have been successfully imported before. This is useful if you have
edited the module source file using an external editor and want to try out the
new version without leaving the Python interpreter. The return value is the
module object (the same as the *module* argument).
When ``reload(module)`` is executed:
* Python modules' code is recompiled and the module-level code reexecuted,
defining a new set of objects which are bound to names in the module's
dictionary. The ``init`` function of extension modules is not called a second
time.
* As with all other objects in Python the old objects are only reclaimed after
their reference counts drop to zero.
* The names in the module namespace are updated to point to any new or changed
objects.
* Other references to the old objects (such as names external to the module) are
not rebound to refer to the new objects and must be updated in each namespace
where they occur if that is desired.
There are a number of other caveats:
If a module is syntactically correct but its initialization fails, the first
:keyword:`import` statement for it does not bind its name locally, but does
store a (partially initialized) module object in ``sys.modules``. To reload the
module you must first :keyword:`import` it again (this will bind the name to the
partially initialized module object) before you can :func:`reload` it.
When a module is reloaded, its dictionary (containing the module's global
variables) is retained. Redefinitions of names will override the old
definitions, so this is generally not a problem. If the new version of a module
does not define a name that was defined by the old version, the old definition
remains. This feature can be used to the module's advantage if it maintains a
global table or cache of objects --- with a :keyword:`try` statement it can test
for the table's presence and skip its initialization if desired::
try:
cache
except NameError:
cache = {}
It is legal though generally not very useful to reload built-in or dynamically
loaded modules, except for :mod:`sys`, :mod:`__main__` and :mod:`__builtin__`.
In many cases, however, extension modules are not designed to be initialized
more than once, and may fail in arbitrary ways when reloaded.
If a module imports objects from another module using :keyword:`from` ...
:keyword:`import` ..., calling :func:`reload` for the other module does not
redefine the objects imported from it --- one way around this is to re-execute
the :keyword:`from` statement, another is to use :keyword:`import` and qualified
names (*module*.*name*) instead.
If a module instantiates instances of a class, reloading the module that defines
the class does not affect the method definitions of the instances --- they
continue to use the old class definition. The same is true for derived classes.
.. function:: repr(object)
Return a string containing a printable representation of an object. This is
the same value yielded by conversions (reverse quotes). It is sometimes
useful to be able to access this operation as an ordinary function. For many
types, this function makes an attempt to return a string that would yield an
object with the same value when passed to :func:`eval`, otherwise the
representation is a string enclosed in angle brackets that contains the name
of the type of the object together with additional information often
including the name and address of the object. A class can control what this
function returns for its instances by defining a :meth:`__repr__` method.
.. function:: reversed(seq)
Return a reverse :term:`iterator`. *seq* must be an object which has
a :meth:`__reversed__` method or supports the sequence protocol (the
:meth:`__len__` method and the :meth:`__getitem__` method with integer
arguments starting at ``0``).
.. versionadded:: 2.4
.. versionchanged:: 2.6
Added the possibility to write a custom :meth:`__reversed__` method.
.. function:: round(x[, n])
Return the floating point value *x* rounded to *n* digits after the decimal
point. If *n* is omitted, it defaults to zero. The result is a floating point
number. Values are rounded to the closest multiple of 10 to the power minus
*n*; if two multiples are equally close, rounding is done away from 0 (so. for
example, ``round(0.5)`` is ``1.0`` and ``round(-0.5)`` is ``-1.0``).
.. function:: set([iterable])
:noindex:
Return a new set, optionally with elements taken from *iterable*.
The set type is described in :ref:`types-set`.
For other containers see the built in :class:`dict`, :class:`list`, and
:class:`tuple` classes, and the :mod:`collections` module.
.. versionadded:: 2.4
.. function:: setattr(object, name, value)
This is the counterpart of :func:`getattr`. The arguments are an object, a
string and an arbitrary value. The string may name an existing attribute or a
new attribute. The function assigns the value to the attribute, provided the
object allows it. For example, ``setattr(x, 'foobar', 123)`` is equivalent to
``x.foobar = 123``.
.. function:: slice([start,] stop[, step])
.. index:: single: Numerical Python
Return a :term:`slice` object representing the set of indices specified by
``range(start, stop, step)``. The *start* and *step* arguments default to
``None``. Slice objects have read-only data attributes :attr:`start`,
:attr:`stop` and :attr:`step` which merely return the argument values (or their
default). They have no other explicit functionality; however they are used by
Numerical Python and other third party extensions. Slice objects are also
generated when extended indexing syntax is used. For example:
``a[start:stop:step]`` or ``a[start:stop, i]``. See :func:`itertools.islice`
for an alternate version that returns an iterator.
.. function:: sorted(iterable[, cmp[, key[, reverse]]])
Return a new sorted list from the items in *iterable*.
The optional arguments *cmp*, *key*, and *reverse* have the same meaning as
those for the :meth:`list.sort` method (described in section
:ref:`typesseq-mutable`).
*cmp* specifies a custom comparison function of two arguments (iterable
elements) which should return a negative, zero or positive number depending on
whether the first argument is considered smaller than, equal to, or larger than
the second argument: ``cmp=lambda x,y: cmp(x.lower(), y.lower())``. The default
value is ``None``.
*key* specifies a function of one argument that is used to extract a comparison
key from each list element: ``key=str.lower``. The default value is ``None``
(compare the elements directly).
*reverse* is a boolean value. If set to ``True``, then the list elements are
sorted as if each comparison were reversed.
In general, the *key* and *reverse* conversion processes are much faster
than specifying an equivalent *cmp* function. This is because *cmp* is
called multiple times for each list element while *key* and *reverse* touch
each element only once. To convert an old-style *cmp* function to a *key*
function, see the `CmpToKey recipe in the ASPN cookbook
<http://code.activestate.com/recipes/576653/>`_\.
For sorting examples and a brief sorting tutorial, see `Sorting HowTo
<http://wiki.python.org/moin/HowTo/Sorting/>`_\.
.. versionadded:: 2.4
.. function:: staticmethod(function)
Return a static method for *function*.
A static method does not receive an implicit first argument. To declare a static
method, use this idiom::
class C:
@staticmethod
def f(arg1, arg2, ...): ...
The ``@staticmethod`` form is a function :term:`decorator` -- see the
description of function definitions in :ref:`function` for details.
It can be called either on the class (such as ``C.f()``) or on an instance (such
as ``C().f()``). The instance is ignored except for its class.
Static methods in Python are similar to those found in Java or C++. For a more
advanced concept, see :func:`classmethod` in this section.
For more information on static methods, consult the documentation on the
standard type hierarchy in :ref:`types`.
.. versionadded:: 2.2
.. versionchanged:: 2.4
Function decorator syntax added.
.. function:: str([object])
Return a string containing a nicely printable representation of an object. For
strings, this returns the string itself. The difference with ``repr(object)``
is that ``str(object)`` does not always attempt to return a string that is
acceptable to :func:`eval`; its goal is to return a printable string. If no
argument is given, returns the empty string, ``''``.
For more information on strings see :ref:`typesseq` which describes sequence
functionality (strings are sequences), and also the string-specific methods
described in the :ref:`string-methods` section. To output formatted strings
use template strings or the ``%`` operator described in the
:ref:`string-formatting` section. In addition see the :ref:`stringservices`
section. See also :func:`unicode`.
.. function:: sum(iterable[, start])
Sums *start* and the items of an *iterable* from left to right and returns the
total. *start* defaults to ``0``. The *iterable*'s items are normally numbers,
and are not allowed to be strings. The fast, correct way to concatenate a
sequence of strings is by calling ``''.join(sequence)``. Note that
``sum(range(n), m)`` is equivalent to ``reduce(operator.add, range(n), m)``
To add floating point values with extended precision, see :func:`math.fsum`\.
.. versionadded:: 2.3
.. function:: super(type[, object-or-type])
Return a proxy object that delegates method calls to a parent or sibling
class of *type*. This is useful for accessing inherited methods that have
been overridden in a class. The search order is same as that used by
:func:`getattr` except that the *type* itself is skipped.
The :attr:`__mro__` attribute of the *type* lists the method resolution
search order used by both :func:`getattr` and :func:`super`. The attribute
is dynamic and can change whenever the inheritance hierarchy is updated.
If the second argument is omitted, the super object returned is unbound. If
the second argument is an object, ``isinstance(obj, type)`` must be true. If
the second argument is a type, ``issubclass(type2, type)`` must be true (this
is useful for classmethods).
.. note::
:func:`super` only works for :term:`new-style class`\es.
There are two typical use cases for *super*. In a class hierarchy with
single inheritance, *super* can be used to refer to parent classes without
naming them explicitly, thus making the code more maintainable. This use
closely parallels the use of *super* in other programming languages.
The second use case is to support cooperative multiple inheritance in a
dynamic execution environment. This use case is unique to Python and is
not found in statically compiled languages or languages that only support
single inheritance. This makes it possible to implement "diamond diagrams"
where multiple base classes implement the same method. Good design dictates
that this method have the same calling signature in every case (because the
order of calls is determined at runtime, because that order adapts
to changes in the class hierarchy, and because that order can include
sibling classes that are unknown prior to runtime).
For both use cases, a typical superclass call looks like this::
class C(B):
def method(self, arg):
super(C, self).method(arg)
Note that :func:`super` is implemented as part of the binding process for
explicit dotted attribute lookups such as ``super().__getitem__(name)``.
It does so by implementing its own :meth:`__getattribute__` method for searching
classes in a predictable order that supports cooperative multiple inheritance.
Accordingly, :func:`super` is undefined for implicit lookups using statements or
operators such as ``super()[name]``.
Also note that :func:`super` is not limited to use inside methods. The two
argument form specifies the arguments exactly and makes the appropriate
references.
.. versionadded:: 2.2
.. function:: tuple([iterable])
Return a tuple whose items are the same and in the same order as *iterable*'s
items. *iterable* may be a sequence, a container that supports iteration, or an
iterator object. If *iterable* is already a tuple, it is returned unchanged.
For instance, ``tuple('abc')`` returns ``('a', 'b', 'c')`` and ``tuple([1, 2,
3])`` returns ``(1, 2, 3)``. If no argument is given, returns a new empty
tuple, ``()``.
:class:`tuple` is an immutable sequence type, as documented in
:ref:`typesseq`. For other containers see the built in :class:`dict`,
:class:`list`, and :class:`set` classes, and the :mod:`collections` module.
.. function:: type(object)
.. index:: object: type
Return the type of an *object*. The return value is a type object. The
:func:`isinstance` built-in function is recommended for testing the type of an
object.
With three arguments, :func:`type` functions as a constructor as detailed below.
.. function:: type(name, bases, dict)
:noindex:
Return a new type object. This is essentially a dynamic form of the
:keyword:`class` statement. The *name* string is the class name and becomes the
:attr:`__name__` attribute; the *bases* tuple itemizes the base classes and
becomes the :attr:`__bases__` attribute; and the *dict* dictionary is the
namespace containing definitions for class body and becomes the :attr:`__dict__`
attribute. For example, the following two statements create identical
:class:`type` objects:
>>> class X(object):
... a = 1
...
>>> X = type('X', (object,), dict(a=1))
.. versionadded:: 2.2
.. function:: unichr(i)
Return the Unicode string of one character whose Unicode code is the integer
*i*. For example, ``unichr(97)`` returns the string ``u'a'``. This is the
inverse of :func:`ord` for Unicode strings. The valid range for the argument
depends how Python was configured -- it may be either UCS2 [0..0xFFFF] or UCS4
[0..0x10FFFF]. :exc:`ValueError` is raised otherwise. For ASCII and 8-bit
strings see :func:`chr`.
.. versionadded:: 2.0
.. function:: unicode([object[, encoding [, errors]]])
Return the Unicode string version of *object* using one of the following modes:
If *encoding* and/or *errors* are given, ``unicode()`` will decode the object
which can either be an 8-bit string or a character buffer using the codec for
*encoding*. The *encoding* parameter is a string giving the name of an encoding;
if the encoding is not known, :exc:`LookupError` is raised. Error handling is
done according to *errors*; this specifies the treatment of characters which are
invalid in the input encoding. If *errors* is ``'strict'`` (the default), a
:exc:`ValueError` is raised on errors, while a value of ``'ignore'`` causes
errors to be silently ignored, and a value of ``'replace'`` causes the official
Unicode replacement character, ``U+FFFD``, to be used to replace input
characters which cannot be decoded. See also the :mod:`codecs` module.
If no optional parameters are given, ``unicode()`` will mimic the behaviour of
``str()`` except that it returns Unicode strings instead of 8-bit strings. More
precisely, if *object* is a Unicode string or subclass it will return that
Unicode string without any additional decoding applied.
For objects which provide a :meth:`__unicode__` method, it will call this method
without arguments to create a Unicode string. For all other objects, the 8-bit
string version or representation is requested and then converted to a Unicode
string using the codec for the default encoding in ``'strict'`` mode.
For more information on Unicode strings see :ref:`typesseq` which describes
sequence functionality (Unicode strings are sequences), and also the
string-specific methods described in the :ref:`string-methods` section. To
output formatted strings use template strings or the ``%`` operator described
in the :ref:`string-formatting` section. In addition see the
:ref:`stringservices` section. See also :func:`str`.
.. versionadded:: 2.0
.. versionchanged:: 2.2
Support for :meth:`__unicode__` added.
.. function:: vars([object])
Without an argument, act like :func:`locals`.
With a module, class or class instance object as argument (or anything else that
has a :attr:`__dict__` attribute), return that attribute.
.. note::
The returned dictionary should not be modified:
the effects on the corresponding symbol table are undefined. [#]_
.. function:: xrange([start,] stop[, step])
This function is very similar to :func:`range`, but returns an "xrange object"
instead of a list. This is an opaque sequence type which yields the same values
as the corresponding list, without actually storing them all simultaneously.
The advantage of :func:`xrange` over :func:`range` is minimal (since
:func:`xrange` still has to create the values when asked for them) except when a
very large range is used on a memory-starved machine or when all of the range's
elements are never used (such as when the loop is usually terminated with
:keyword:`break`).
.. impl-detail::
:func:`xrange` is intended to be simple and fast. Implementations may
impose restrictions to achieve this. The C implementation of Python
restricts all arguments to native C longs ("short" Python integers), and
also requires that the number of elements fit in a native C long. If a
larger range is needed, an alternate version can be crafted using the
:mod:`itertools` module: ``takewhile(lambda x: x<stop, (start+i*step
for i in count()))``.
.. function:: zip([iterable, ...])
This function returns a list of tuples, where the *i*-th tuple contains the
*i*-th element from each of the argument sequences or iterables. The returned
list is truncated in length to the length of the shortest argument sequence.
When there are multiple arguments which are all of the same length, :func:`zip`
is similar to :func:`map` with an initial argument of ``None``. With a single
sequence argument, it returns a list of 1-tuples. With no arguments, it returns
an empty list.
The left-to-right evaluation order of the iterables is guaranteed. This
makes possible an idiom for clustering a data series into n-length groups
using ``zip(*[iter(s)]*n)``.
:func:`zip` in conjunction with the ``*`` operator can be used to unzip a
list::
>>> x = [1, 2, 3]
>>> y = [4, 5, 6]
>>> zipped = zip(x, y)
>>> zipped
[(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)]
>>> x2, y2 = zip(*zipped)
>>> x == list(x2) and y == list(y2)
True
.. versionadded:: 2.0
.. versionchanged:: 2.4
Formerly, :func:`zip` required at least one argument and ``zip()`` raised a
:exc:`TypeError` instead of returning an empty list.
.. function:: __import__(name[, globals[, locals[, fromlist[, level]]]])
.. index::
statement: import
module: imp
.. note::
This is an advanced function that is not needed in everyday Python
programming.
This function is invoked by the :keyword:`import` statement. It can be
replaced (by importing the :mod:`__builtin__` module and assigning to
``__builtin__.__import__``) in order to change semantics of the
:keyword:`import` statement, but nowadays it is usually simpler to use import
hooks (see :pep:`302`). Direct use of :func:`__import__` is rare, except in
cases where you want to import a module whose name is only known at runtime.
The function imports the module *name*, potentially using the given *globals*
and *locals* to determine how to interpret the name in a package context.
The *fromlist* gives the names of objects or submodules that should be
imported from the module given by *name*. The standard implementation does
not use its *locals* argument at all, and uses its *globals* only to
determine the package context of the :keyword:`import` statement.
*level* specifies whether to use absolute or relative imports. The default
is ``-1`` which indicates both absolute and relative imports will be
attempted. ``0`` means only perform absolute imports. Positive values for
*level* indicate the number of parent directories to search relative to the
directory of the module calling :func:`__import__`.
When the *name* variable is of the form ``package.module``, normally, the
top-level package (the name up till the first dot) is returned, *not* the
module named by *name*. However, when a non-empty *fromlist* argument is
given, the module named by *name* is returned.
For example, the statement ``import spam`` results in bytecode resembling the
following code::
spam = __import__('spam', globals(), locals(), [], -1)
The statement ``import spam.ham`` results in this call::
spam = __import__('spam.ham', globals(), locals(), [], -1)
Note how :func:`__import__` returns the toplevel module here because this is
the object that is bound to a name by the :keyword:`import` statement.
On the other hand, the statement ``from spam.ham import eggs, sausage as
saus`` results in ::
_temp = __import__('spam.ham', globals(), locals(), ['eggs', 'sausage'], -1)
eggs = _temp.eggs
saus = _temp.sausage
Here, the ``spam.ham`` module is returned from :func:`__import__`. From this
object, the names to import are retrieved and assigned to their respective
names.
If you simply want to import a module (potentially within a package) by name,
you can call :func:`__import__` and then look it up in :data:`sys.modules`::
>>> import sys
>>> name = 'foo.bar.baz'
>>> __import__(name)
<module 'foo' from ...>
>>> baz = sys.modules[name]
>>> baz
<module 'foo.bar.baz' from ...>
.. versionchanged:: 2.5
The level parameter was added.
.. versionchanged:: 2.5
Keyword support for parameters was added.
.. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
.. _non-essential-built-in-funcs:
Non-essential Built-in Functions
================================
There are several built-in functions that are no longer essential to learn, know
or use in modern Python programming. They have been kept here to maintain
backwards compatibility with programs written for older versions of Python.
Python programmers, trainers, students and book writers should feel free to
bypass these functions without concerns about missing something important.
.. function:: apply(function, args[, keywords])
The *function* argument must be a callable object (a user-defined or built-in
function or method, or a class object) and the *args* argument must be a
sequence. The *function* is called with *args* as the argument list; the number
of arguments is the length of the tuple. If the optional *keywords* argument is
present, it must be a dictionary whose keys are strings. It specifies keyword
arguments to be added to the end of the argument list. Calling :func:`apply` is
different from just calling ``function(args)``, since in that case there is
always exactly one argument. The use of :func:`apply` is equivalent to
``function(*args, **keywords)``.
.. deprecated:: 2.3
Use the extended call syntax with ``*args`` and ``**keywords`` instead.
.. function:: buffer(object[, offset[, size]])
The *object* argument must be an object that supports the buffer call interface
(such as strings, arrays, and buffers). A new buffer object will be created
which references the *object* argument. The buffer object will be a slice from
the beginning of *object* (or from the specified *offset*). The slice will
extend to the end of *object* (or will have a length given by the *size*
argument).
.. function:: coerce(x, y)
Return a tuple consisting of the two numeric arguments converted to a common
type, using the same rules as used by arithmetic operations. If coercion is not
possible, raise :exc:`TypeError`.
.. function:: intern(string)
Enter *string* in the table of "interned" strings and return the interned string
-- which is *string* itself or a copy. Interning strings is useful to gain a
little performance on dictionary lookup -- if the keys in a dictionary are
interned, and the lookup key is interned, the key comparisons (after hashing)
can be done by a pointer compare instead of a string compare. Normally, the
names used in Python programs are automatically interned, and the dictionaries
used to hold module, class or instance attributes have interned keys.
.. versionchanged:: 2.3
Interned strings are not immortal (like they used to be in Python 2.2 and
before); you must keep a reference to the return value of :func:`intern` around
to benefit from it.
.. rubric:: Footnotes
.. [#] It is used relatively rarely so does not warrant being made into a statement.
.. [#] Specifying a buffer size currently has no effect on systems that don't have
:cfunc:`setvbuf`. The interface to specify the buffer size is not done using a
method that calls :cfunc:`setvbuf`, because that may dump core when called after
any I/O has been performed, and there's no reliable way to determine whether
this is the case.
.. [#] In the current implementation, local variable bindings cannot normally be
affected this way, but variables retrieved from other scopes (such as modules)
can be. This may change.
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